Artificial Food Colors and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Symptoms: Conclusions to Dye for

Abstract

The effect of artificial food colors (AFCs) on child behavior has been studied for more than 35 years, with accumulating evidence from imperfect studies. This article summarizes the history of this controversial topic and testimony to the 2011 Food and Drug Administration Food Advisory Committee convened to evaluate the current status of evidence regarding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Features of ADHD relevant to understanding the AFC literature are explained: ADHD is a quantitative diagnosis, like hypertension, and some individuals near the threshold may be pushed over it by a small symptom increment. The chronicity and pervasiveness make caregiver ratings the most valid measure, albeit subjective. Flaws in many studies include nonstandardized diagnosis, questionable sample selection, imperfect blinding, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Recent data suggest a small but significant deleterious effect of AFCs on children's behavior that is not confined to those with diagnosable ADHD. AFCs appear to be more of a public health problem than an ADHD problem. AFCs are not a major cause of ADHD per se, but seem to affect children regardless of whether or not they have ADHD, and they may have an aggregated effect on classroom climate if most children in the class suffer a small behavioral decrement with additive or synergistic effects. Possible biological mechanisms with published evidence include the effects on nutrient levels, genetic vulnerability, and changes in electroencephalographic beta-band power. A table clarifying the Food and Drug Administration and international naming systems for AFCs, with cross-referencing, is provided.

Monascus spp.: A source of Natural Microbial Color through Fungal Biofermentation

“…Dyes and pigments are used to create new food products and to modify the color of established food products, which show color shifts as a result of manufacture and storage. Dyes and pigments are classified as certified and uncertified food colors [4]. Certified colors are manufactured synthetically to meet strict government specifications.…”

Production of food colourants by filamentous fungi

“…However, with the increase in demand for food colourants, these natural sources of colourants became inadequate and synthetic food colourants were introduced into the market. Synthetic food colourants were widely used but people have become more conscious of the health implications of synthetic colourants in food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (Arnold et al, 2012;Stevens et al, 2013Stevens et al, , 2014). People's interest in natural sources of food colourants have been revitalized and research in ways of expanding sources of natural food colourants have become greatly E-mail: christiana.ogbonna@unn.edu.ng.…”

Determination of Allura Red and Tartrazine in Food Samples by Sequential Injection Analysis Combined with Voltammetric Detection at Antimony Film Electrode

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Natural and synthetic dyes are added to food and beverages to improve the visuala ppearanceo ft he finalp roducts.S ynthetic dyes are commonly usedb ecause of their lower cost and higher stability towardl ight, oxygen and pH changes [1].A llura red (AR)a nd Tartrazine (T) are two azo dyes commonly that can be foundi nc ommon food products.However, they can cause allergic and intolerance reactions [2].T he Food and Drug Administration establish acceptable daily intakes of 7a nd 5mg/kg/day for AR and T, respectively [3].I nM exico,t he maximum limits in drinks are 300 mg L À1 for AR and 100 mg L À1 for T, individually and 100 mg L À1 as mixture [4].Azo dyes have high values of molar absorption coefficients,t hus spectrophotometry has been commonly applied to determine these compounds [5][6][7].O ther methods described for this purpose are high performance liquid chromatography [8],c apillary electrophoresis [9] and electrochemical techniques.C athodic voltammetry has been applied to determine azo dyes as ac onsequence of the reduction processo btained using mercury [10], modified carbon [11][12] and bismuth film electrodes [13]. Thea ntimony film electrode (SbFE)h as demonstrated to possess adequate analytical performance compares to bismuth and mercury films during analysis of inorganic ions by anodic strippingv oltammetry [14].R egarding the analysis of azo compounds by SbFE, it has been describedt he analysis of sulfasalazine in pharmaceutical formulation [15].

Nowadays al aboratory should be able to perform determinations of al arge number of samples in an accurate, reproducible,f ast and economicw ay.F low techniques and in particular Sequential Injection Analysis (SIA) has becomei sbecoming an important toolf or the automation of chemicalp rocedures [16].T he combination of SIA with voltammetric detection improves the sensitivity and reproducibility of the methoda sac onsequence of the highly controllable conditions provided by the flowing solutions.

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“…Natural and synthetic dyes are added to food and beverages to improve the visuala ppearanceo ft he finalp roducts.S ynthetic dyes are commonly usedb ecause of their lower cost and higher stability towardl ight, oxygen and pH changes [1].A llura red (AR)a nd Tartrazine (T) are two azo dyes commonly that can be foundi nc ommon food products.However, they can cause allergic and intolerance reactions [2].T he Food and Drug Administration establish acceptable daily intakes of 7a nd 5mg/kg/day for AR and T, respectively [3].I nM exico,t he maximum limits in drinks are 300 mg L À1 for AR and 100 mg L À1 for T, individually and 100 mg L À1 as mixture [4].…”