Assessing the adequacy of the global land-based mine development pipeline in the light of future high-demand scenarios: The case of the battery-metals nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co).

Heijlen, Wouter; Franceschi, Guy; Duhayon, Chris; Nijen, Kris Van

doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102202

Cited by 23 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 37 publications

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“…However, the implications of the long lead time for new mining alongside the electrification transition, although referenced by others (IEA 2021 ; Kettle 2021 ), have not been considered in an holistic manner that considers all tiers of the supply chain, from mineral exploration through to EV manufacture. A notable exception is the work by Heijlen et al ( 2021 ), where they investigated the mine development pipeline (exploration and mine development stages in tier 4) for the battery metals nickel and cobalt.…”

Section: Changing Raw Materials Needsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A recent study assessing 100 gold and copper discoveries worldwide found that on average, it took 12 years to make the discovery and that over the last 40 years, the rate of discovery appears to be slowing down (Khan et al 2016 , Schodde 2019 ). There is little comparable data for the technology metals although a recent analysis of historical nickel mine development showed that the lead time from the start of exploration to the beginning of mine production increased from 8 to 12 years between 2000 and 2020 (Heijlen et al 2021 ).…”

Section: From Raw Materials To Electric Vehicles—an Integrated Supply...mentioning

confidence: 99%

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Decarbonising the automotive sector: a primary raw material perspective on targets and timescales

Petavratzi

Gunn

2022

Miner Econ

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Decarbonisation of the automotive sector will require increased amounts of raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare earth elements. Consequently, it is crucial to assess whether supply will be able to meet forecast demand within the required timescale. The automotive sector relies on complex global supply chains comprising four tiers. We have developed an integrated timeline from tier 4 (supply of raw materials) through to tier 1, the production of electric vehicles (EVs). Numerous factors, mainly economic, political, social and environmental, influence the duration of tier 4 leading to considerable variation between projects. However, our analysis demonstrates that it commonly takes more than 30 years from initial exploration to EV production. Tier 4, which is often neglected by the automotive industry, may account for 20 years of that period. This suggests that raw material supply is unlikely to match the projected demand from electrification of the automotive sector up to 2030. Reducing the duration of tier 4 will be difficult, although governments and industry can mitigate supply risks in various ways. These include multi-disciplinary international research across the supply chain and the transformation of research findings into policy and best practice. Supply chain convergence, with businesses across the supply chain working to develop long-term plans for secure and sustainable supply, will also be beneficial. In addition, global stakeholders should work together to resolve ESG challenges to supply. All these measures depend on the availability of researchers and industry personnel with appropriate skills and knowledge.

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Section: Changing Raw Materials Needsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: From Raw Materials To Electric Vehicles—an Integrated Supply...mentioning

confidence: 99%

Decarbonising the automotive sector: a primary raw material perspective on targets and timescales

Petavratzi

Gunn

2022

Miner Econ

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“…The application of cobalt and nickel in batteries and electronic devices has increased substantially in the past decades. , Efficient extraction and separation from natural ores or electronic waste is paramount for the supply of Co and Ni, yet this separation of neighboring elements is challenging. , Liquid–liquid solvent extraction is often used for their separation and purification. − During the extraction process, metal ions are selectively transported across the liquid–liquid interface with the assistance of organic extractant molecules . Understanding the role of both bulk and interfacial complexation in the solvent extraction process will help to design and develop new methodologies which enhance the efficiency and selectivity of their separation.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The application of cobalt and nickel in batteries and electronic devices has increased substantially in the past decades. 1,2 Efficient extraction and separation from natural ores or electronic waste is paramount for the supply of Co and Ni, yet this separation of neighboring elements is challenging. 3,4 Liquid−liquid solvent extraction is often used for their separation and purification.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Relevance of Surface Adsorption and Aqueous Complexation for the Separation of Co(II), Ni(II), and Fe(III)

Sun

Binter

et al. 2023

J. Phys. Chem. B

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During the solvent extraction of metal ions from an aqueous to an organic phase, organic-soluble extractants selectively target aqueous-soluble ions for transport into the organic phase. In the case of extractants that are also soluble in the aqueous phase, our recent studies of lanthanide ion–extractant complexes at the surface of aqueous solutions suggested that ion–extractant complexation in the aqueous phase can hinder the solvent extraction process. Here, we investigate a similar phenomenon relevant to the separation of Co(II), Ni(II), and Fe(III). X-ray fluorescence near total reflection and tensiometry are used to characterize ion adsorption behavior at the surface of aqueous solutions containing water-soluble extractants, either bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (HDEHP) or 2-ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (HEHEHP), as well as adsorption to a monolayer of water-insoluble extractant dihexadecyl phosphoric acid (DHDP) at the aqueous–vapor interface. Competitive adsorption of Ni(II) and Fe(III) utilizing either HDEHP or DHDP illustrates the essential feature of the recent lanthanide studies that the ion, which is preferentially extracted in liquid–liquid extraction, Fe(III), is found preferentially adsorbed to the water–vapor interface only in the presence of the water-insoluble extractant DHDP. A more subtle competition produces comparable adsorption behavior of Co(II) and Ni(II) at the surfaces of both HDEHP- and HEHEHP-aqueous solutions in spite of the known preference for Co(II) under solvent extraction conditions. Comparison experiments with a monolayer of DHDP reveal that Co(II) is preferentially adsorbed to the surface. This preference for Co(II) is also supported by molecular dynamics simulations of the potential of mean force of ions interacting with the soluble extractants in water. These results highlight the possibility that complexation of extractants and ions in the aqueous phase can alter selectivity in the solvent extraction of critical elements.

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“…These factors are governed mostly by the cathode material for typical Li-ion batteries. [1] As EV cell cathodes are overwhelmingly stoichiometric-layered chemistries (LiMO 2 , M = Ni, Co, Mn, Al), limited cobalt and nickel resources [2,3] have raised concerns over impending supply disruptions that can result in cell cost volatility. [4] As a result, adopting lowcost and sustainable raw materials for cathodes in Li-ion batteries has become particularly important for ongoing research and development.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Quantitative Decoupling of Oxygen‐Redox and Manganese‐Redox Voltage Hysteresis in a Cation‐Disordered Rock Salt Cathode

Huang

Cai

Crafton

et al. 2023

Advanced Energy Materials

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Pronounced voltage hysteresis in Li-excess cathode materials is commonly thought to be associated with oxygen redox. However, these materials often possess overlapping oxygen and transition-metal redox, whose contributions to hysteresis between charge and discharge are challenging to distinguish. In this work, a two-step aqueous redox titration is developed with the aid of mass spectrometry (MS) to quantify oxidized lattice oxygen and Mn 3+ /4+ redox in a representative Li-excess cation-disordered rock salt-Li 1.2 Mn 0.4 Ti 0.4 O 2 (LMTO). Two MS-countable gas molecules evolve from two separate titrant-analyte reactions, thereby allowing Mn and O redox capacities to be decoupled. The decoupled O and Mn redox coulombic efficiencies are close to 100% for the LMTO cathode, indicating high charge-compensation reversibility. As incremental Mn and O redox capacities are quantitatively decoupled, each redox voltage hysteresis is further evaluated. Overall, LMTO voltage hysteresis arises not only from an intrinsic charge-discharge voltage mismatch related to O redox, but also from asymmetric Mn-redox overvoltages. The results reveal that O and Mn redox both contribute substantially to voltage hysteresis. This work further shows the potential of designing new analytical workflows to experimentally quantify key properties, even in a disordered material having complex local coordination environments.

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Assessing the adequacy of the global land-based mine development pipeline in the light of future high-demand scenarios: The case of the battery-metals nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co).

Cited by 23 publications

References 37 publications

Decarbonising the automotive sector: a primary raw material perspective on targets and timescales

Decarbonising the automotive sector: a primary raw material perspective on targets and timescales

Relevance of Surface Adsorption and Aqueous Complexation for the Separation of Co(II), Ni(II), and Fe(III)

Quantitative Decoupling of Oxygen‐Redox and Manganese‐Redox Voltage Hysteresis in a Cation‐Disordered Rock Salt Cathode

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