Assessment of Occupational and Public Exposure to Trichloramine in Swiss Indoor Swimming Pools: A Proposal for an Occupational Exposure Limit

Abstract

Our results demonstrate an increasing risk of irritative symptoms up to a level of 0.2-0.3 mg m(-3) of trichloramine. The health data in our study, as well as the review of the literature, strongly suggest fixing the trichloramine occupational exposure limit at 0.3 mg m(-3). Severe technical standards (on flocculation, filters, water flow, and ventilation systems) and regulations on water quality (free and combined chlorine, urea, and amount of fresh water) contribute to reducing trichloramine formation and, consequently, occupational and public trichloramine exposure. In addition, to ensure good public hygiene (showering before swimming), correct and regular public awareness campaigns should be undertaken.

Occupational Exposure to Trichloramine and Trihalomethanes in Swedish Indoor Swimming Pools: Evaluation of Personal and Stationary Monitoring

“…Earlier surveys in indoor swimming pools in France and Great Britain determined trichloramine concentrations between 100–570 and 140–600 µg m −3 , respectively ( Massin et al , 1998 ; Thickett et al , 2002 ). Some later studies determined trichloramine concentrations between 40 and 520 µg m −3 ( Jacobs et al , 2007 ; Parrat et al , 2012 ; Fornander et al , 2013 ). Adverse health effects such as symptoms of the upper airways, nausea, and occular irritation have been reported among swimming pool employees ( Hery et al , 1995 ; Massin et al , 1998 ; Thickett et al , 2002 ; Jacobs et al , 2007 ; Parrat et al , 2012 ).…”

Evaluation of eye and respiratory symptoms among employees at an indoor waterpark resort.

“…We found that waterpark employees were 4.91 times more likely than non-waterpark employees to meet the case definition for illness consistent with disinfection byproduct exposure [Fantuzzi et al 2010;Parrat et al 2012]. Eye irritation, cough, and nose irritation were the most common work-related symptoms reported by employees.…”

“…Many types of disinfection byproducts can be found in recreational water venues; two of the more-studied types are trihalomethanes and chloramines (Appendix B). Disinfection byproducts have been associated with eye and respiratory tract symptoms in people who work in or use recreational water venues [Fantuzzi et al 2010;Jacobs et al 2007;Massin et al 1998;NIOSH 2010b;Parrat et al 2012;Villanueva et al 2015].…”

“…At recreational water venues, people are exposed to disinfection byproducts through skin contact with water containing disinfection byproducts, inhaling disinfection byproducts in the air, and swallowing water containing disinfection byproducts [Dyck et al 2011;WHO 2006]. The concentration of disinfection byproducts in indoor aquatic venues depends on a number of factors, including water chemistry parameters (for example, chlorine concentration, pH, and temperature), bather load, amount of splashing and spraying, and air recirculation [Baxter 2012;Chu and Nieuwenhuijsen 2002;Héry et al 1995;Parrat et al 2012]. Higher bather loads are associated with higher levels of trichloramine, a disinfection byproduct [Jacobs et al 2007].…”

Health impact of disinfection by-products in swimming pools

“…Given the high public health relevance of the topic and the existing uncertainties, further research is needed to draw final conclusions about the risk of respiratory problems during childhood for swimming in well maintained swimming pools. The maximum level proposed for trichloramine in air as provisional guideline [1] should be revised [112,113] and regulated. Also, the potential carcinogenicity of this environment should be further explored.…”