Assisted Conception Socialization Self-Efficacy Among Israeli Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parent Families and its Association with Child Externalizing Problems

Abstract

This questionnaire-based study compared 36 Israeli lesbian mother families ( n = 72 lesbian mothers) formed by donor insemination, 39 Israeli gay father families ( n = 78 gay fathers) formed by gestational surrogacy, and 36 Israeli heterosexual parent families ( n = 72 heterosexual parents) formed by assisted reproduction (without donated gametes), all with a target child aged 3–10 years. The families were examined for parents’ assisted conception socialization self-efficacy, depression, negative and positive affect, life satisfaction, positivity, resilience, social support, and child externalizing problems. Multiple factors associated with child externalizing problems were also examined. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that parents’ assisted conception socialization self-efficacy did not differ between family groups; however, lesbian mothers and gay fathers reported fewer child externalizing problems and greater social support, relative to heterosexual parents. Also, lesbian mothers—but not gay fathers—reported lower levels of depression, greater life satisfaction, and more positivity than did heterosexual parents. Finally, irrespective of family type, greater assisted conception socialization self-efficacy was associated with fewer parent-reported child externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in light of the cultural socialization framework and Israel’s familistic and pronatalist environment. Implications for health professionals, educators, and policymakers working with diverse family forms are discussed.

Higher Levels of Postnatal Depressive Symptomatology, Post-Traumatic Growth, and Life Satisfaction among Gay Fathers through Surrogacy in Comparison to Heterosexual Fathers: A Study in Israel in Times of COVID-19

“…Our results revealed that gay fathers through surrogacy reported more postnatal depressive symptomatology than heterosexual fathers. This does not conform with previous findings which detected no differences in depressive symptomatology between gay and heterosexual fathers [7,11,25]. An explanation for our results could be the time period of data collection.…”

“…Consistent with the literature discussed above regarding higher levels of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being among gay fathers through surrogacy in comparison to heterosexual fathers and posttraumatic growth among mothers contending with stressful birth events, we hypothesized that gay fathers through surrogacy will report greater life satisfaction and posttraumatic growth than heterosexual fathers. As most studies have not detected differences in depressive symptomatology between gay and heterosexual fathers e.g., [7,11] and there is a lack of data on postnatal depressive symptomatology among gay fathers [25], we did not consolidate a specific hypothesis regarding a difference in postnatal depressive symptomatology between the two groups.…”

“…Research regarding depressive symptoms among gay fathers has not tended to detect differences between gay and heterosexual fathers [6,25]. This suggests that, in contrast to the numerous findings showing that childless gay men tend to report more depressive symptomatology than childless heterosexual men e.g., [26,27], fatherhood among gay men is a potential protective factor in mental health [7]. Such affective vulnerability among childless sexual minorities is usually attributed to minority stress, namely, the chronic psychological stress induced by the pressures of stigma, bias, and discrimination [28].…”

“…Due to developments in fertility technology alongside social and political advancements, gay men are today becoming fathers through surrogacy more than ever before [2,3]. Correspondingly, in recent years, the well-being of gay fathers through surrogacy has gained increased research attention [4][5][6][7]. This research attention adds new information to the relatively limited research on the experiences of men (both heterosexual and gay) around childbirth [8].…”

Peer Microaggressions and Social Skills among School-Age Children of Sexual Minority Parents through Assisted Reproduction: Moderation via the Child–Teacher Relationship

“…Finally, sexual minority parents must play a key role in this process by preparing children to navigate stigmatizing experiences with resilience and forming positive family conceptualizations (Shenkman et al 2022). They may do so, for example, by ensuring age-appropriate open communication about their child's family background; discussing how best to handle questions, comments, and teasing; referring to print and digital media incorporating diverse family forms; and maintaining frequent contact with other children of sexual minority parents (Farr et al 2016a, Goldberg et al 2016, Oakley et al 2017, Wyman Battalen et al 2019.…”