“…ACEs is considered to affect life-course health via disparate biological mechanisms, including, but not limited to, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, DNA methylation in key genes, telomere length shortening, increased cortisol levels, and chronic inflammation ( Furman et al, 2019 ; Lang et al, 2020 ). A rising number of empirical studies have shown a positive association between ACEs and life-course health in North America, European countries, Africa, and Asia ( Bellis et al, 2019 ; El Mhamdi et al, 2017 ; Furman et al, 2019 ; Goodman et al, 2022 ; Herrmann et al, 2018 ; Iob et al, 2020 ; Jin & Liu, 2018 ; Koyama et al, 2022 ; Lang et al, 2020 ; Mlouki et al, 2023 ; Monnat & Chandler, 2015 ; Poole et al, 2017 ; Shonkoff & Garner, 2012 ; Tan & Mao, 2023 ; Tani et al, 2021 ). Health consequences cover both physical health (including general health, morbidity and mortality of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and respiratory diseases) and mental health (including depression and cognitive impairment) at a later age ( Dannefer, 2020 ; Sieber et al, 2020 ; Verropoulou & Serafetinidou, 2019 ).…”