Association between air pollution in Lima and the high incidence of COVID-19: findings from a post hoc analysis

Abstract

Background Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) originated in the People’s Republic of China in December 2019. Thereafter, a global logarithmic expansion of cases occurred. Some countries have a higher rate of infections despite the early implementation of quarantine. Air pollution might be related to high susceptibility to the virus and associated case fatality rates (deaths/cases*100). Lima, Peru, has the second highest incidence of COVID-19 in Latin America and also has one the highest levels of air pollution in the region. Methods This study investigated the association of levels of PM2.5 exposure in previous years (2010–2016) in 24 districts of Lima with cases, deaths and case fatality rates for COVID-19. Multiple linear regression was used to evaluate this association controlled by age, sex, population density and number of food markets per district. The study period was from March 6 to June 12, 2020. Results There were 128,700 cases in Lima and 2382 deaths due to COVID-19. The case fatality rate was 1.93%. Previous exposure to PM2.5 (2010—2016) was associated with the number of COVID-19- cases (β = 0.07; 95% CI: 0.034–0.107) and deaths (β = 0.0014; 95% CI: 0.0006–0.0.0023) but not with the case fatality rate. Conclusions After adjusting for age, sex and number of food markets, the higher rates of COVID-19 in Metropolitan Lima are attributable to the increased PM2.5 exposure in the previous years, among other reasons. Reduction in air pollution from a long-term perspective and social distancing are needed to prevent the spread of virus outbreaks.

Does air pollution explain COVID-19 fatality and mortality rates? A multi-city study in São Paulo state, Brazil

“…Borro et al ( 2020 ) reported positive correlations between PM 2.5 and mortality rate ( r = 0.65, p < 0.0001) and case fatality rate ( r = 0.7, p < 0.0001), considering PM 2.5 data of days before the first reported cases in Italy. In opposite to what was found in our study, Vasquez-Apestegui et al ( 2021 ) estimated a significant association between long-term exposure to PM 2.5 and COVID-19 mortality in Peru; however, they did not observe this relationship for the lethality rate. The discrepant results between the investigations suggest that the better variable (fatality or mortality rate) to have the relationship with long-term exposure to air pollutants depends on the specific characteristics as which are the analyzed cities, socioeconomic indicators, quality of healthcare services, etc.…”

“…8, 2020 PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , NO, and O 3 (past period) • In total, 1 µg/m 3 increase in NO 2 was associated with 3.1% more deaths • A total of 1 µg/m 3 increase in PM 2.5 and PM 10 was associated with 12% and 8% more cases, respectively Konstantinoudis et al ( 2021 ) England Cumulative deaths reported until Jun. 30, 2020 PM 2.5 and NO 2 (past period) • In total, 1 µg/m 3 increase in PM 2.5 and NO 2 were associated with 1.4% and 0.5% increase in mortality risk, respectively López-Feldman et al ( 2021 ) Mexico City metropolitan area Confirmed cases and deaths available on 7 Oct. 2020 PM 2.5 (past period) • PM 2.5 increases the probability of dying, even with including municipal and individual levels covariates • Its effect is monotonically increasing with age and reaches a maximum at around 80 years of age Vasquez-Apestegui et al ( 2021 ) Peru Cases and deaths occurred until Jun. 12, 2020 PM 2.5 (past period) • PM2.5 was associated with the number of cases ( β = 0.07; 95% CI : 0.034–0.107) and deaths ( β = 0.0014; 95% CI : 0.0006–0.0.0023) but not with case fatality rate Wu et al ( 2020 ) USA Death counts up to Jun.…”

The Potential Impact of Smog Spell on Humans’ Health Amid COVID-19 Rages

“…Reforestation and the use of eco-friendly fuels are encouraged to reduce air pollution [59]. Despite efforts Ashford (109), Crowborough (108), Faversham (107), Ealing (106), London (104), Shenley (104), Cambridge (103), East Ham (103), Cranbrook (102), and Lewes (102) are most polluted cities of England [60]. United Kingdom followed the European Union laws and standards regarding air pollution as shown in Tables 4 and 5.…”

Is Environmental Pollution Associated with an Increased Number of COVID-19 Cases in Europe?

“…Fattorini and Regoli [ 18 ] and Frontera et al [ 19 ] also showed a positive correlation in Italy, where more COVID-19 cases were found in regions with more population. Vasquez-Apestegui et al [ 20 ] showed that in Lima (Peru), the rate of COVID-19 spread was associated with higher exposure to gaseous pollutants, and Andrée [ 21 ] concluded the same in his study on the Netherlands. Furthermore, exposure to air pollution could increase vulnerability and have detrimental effects on people affected by COVID-19 [ 22 ].…”