Association of cigarette smoking habits with the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Background Association of cigarette smoking habits with the risk of prostate cancer is still a matter of debate. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the association between cigarette smoking and prostate cancer risk. Methods We conducted a systematic search on PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science without language or time restrictions on June 11, 2022. Literature search and study screening were performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Prospective cohort studies that assessed the association between cigarette smoking habits and the risk of prostate cancer were included. Quality assessment was conducted using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. We used random-effects models to obtain pooled estimates and the corresponding 95% confidence intervals. Results A total of 7296 publications were screened, of which 44 cohort studies were identified for qualitative analysis; 39 articles comprising 3 296 398 participants and 130 924 cases were selected for further meta-analysis. Current smoking had a significantly reduced risk of prostate cancer (RR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.68–0.80; P < 0.001), especially in studies completed in the prostate-specific antigen screening era. Compared to former smokers, current smokers had a significant lower risk of PCa (RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.65–0.75; P < 0.001). Ever smoking showed no association with prostate cancer risk in overall analyses (RR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.93–1.00; P = 0.074), but an increased risk of prostate cancer in the pre-prostate-specific antigen screening era (RR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.00–1.10; P = 0.046) and a lower risk of prostate cancer in the prostate-specific antigen screening era (RR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.91–0.99; P = 0.011) were observed. Former smoking did not show any association with the risk of prostate cancer. Conclusions The findings suggest that the lower risk of prostate cancer in smokers can probably be attributed to their poor adherence to cancer screening and the occurrence of deadly smoking-related diseases, and we should take measures to help smokers to be more compliant with early cancer screening and to quit smoking. Trial registration This study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42022326464).

Cancer patterns in Iran: a gender-specific spatial modelling of cancer incidence during 2014–2017

“…Prostate cancer was a prevalent cancer in men, ranking as the third most common. Smoking has been identified as the most significant cause of prostate cancer [ 52 ]. The incidence rate of prostate cancer varies geographically and this indicates the impact of environmental factors on its occurrence.…”

Risk factors for prostate cancer: An umbrella review of prospective observational studies and mendelian randomization analyses

“…Additionally, subgroup analyses of whites and non-whites population were performed for 11 significant associations from 11 meta-analyses (S6 Table and S2 [35,49,57,100]. There were 3 datasets available for ulcerative colitis (UC) [89] and 4 datasets for current smoking [30] in non-white populations. The subgroup analyses results showed the significant effects remained largely consistent for white population, while in non-white population, only the inverse associations of smoking and finasteride remained significant.…”

“…In addition, multiple inconsistent exposure categories for smoking such as current smoking, former smoking, and ever smoked, etc., might contribute to the varied results. To sum up, measures should be taken to help smokers to be more compliant with early cancer screening and to quit smoking [30]. Concerning physical activity, physical activity may be associated with cancer through several pathways related to oxidative stress, DNA methylation, telomere length, immune function, and gut microbiome [188].…”