Association of Coffee Consumption and Its Types According to Addition of Sugar and Creamer with Metabolic Syndrome Incidence in a Korean Population from the Health Examinees (HEXA) Study

Abstract

Coffee is widely consumed worldwide, and numerous studies indicate that coffee consumption may potentially affect the development of chronic diseases. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) may constitute a risk factor for chronic diseases. We aimed to prospectively evaluate the association between coffee consumption and MetS incidence. All participants were selected from the Health Examinees study. MetS was defined by the Adult Treatment Panel III criteria of the National Cholesterol Education Program. A multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to assess the relationship between coffee consumption and MetS incidence. In comparison with non-consumers, male moderate consumers (≤3 cups/day) showed a lower risk for low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (≤1 cup/day, hazard ratio (HR): 0.445, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.254–0.780; 1–3 cups/day, HR: 0.507, 95% CI: 0.299–0.859) and high fasting blood glucose (FPG) (≤1 cup/day, HR: 0.694, 95% CI: 0.538–0.895; 1–3 cups/day, HR: 0.763, 95% CI: 0.598–0.972). Male 3-in-1 coffee (coffee with sugar and creamer) consumers also showed a lower risk for low HDL-C (HR: 0.423, 95% CI: 0.218–0.824) and high FPG (HR: 0.659, 95% CI: 0.497–0.874). These findings indicate a negative association between moderate coffee consumption and low HDL-C and high FPG among Korean male adults.

Coffee Intake and Risk of Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies

“…1 . The remaining 12 articles 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 were included in the final analysis.…”

“…Both men and women were included in nine of the 13 cohort studies. 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 The remaining studies included only women (n = 3) 16 22 or men (n = 1). 15 Eight studies defined hypertension as systolic BP ≥ 140 mmHg or/and diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg, systolic BP ≥ 130 mmHg or/and diastolic BP ≥ 85 mmHg, or the use of antihypertensive medication, while five defined the outcome as self-reported hypertension.…”

“…The association between chronic coffee intake and the risk of hypertension has been explored in observational epidemiological studies such as prospective cohort studies. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 However, those findings remain inconsistent: some cohort studies reported a positive association between coffee intake and hypertension, 15 17 18 20 21 26 while others showed a negative association. 16 19 22 23 24 25 …”

“… 29 30 Since then, several additional cohort studies that explored the association between long-term coffee intake and incident hypertension have been published. 24 25 26 …”

The Association Between Coffee Consumption and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in the South Korean General Population

“…However, in terms of the dietary habits of South Korean adults aged ≥40 years, these beverages are seldom consumed and were, therefore, not considered. [ 67 ]…”