Association of Vasoconstrictive Exposures with Risks of Gastroschisis and Small Intestinal Atresia

Recreational Drug Use: A Major Risk Factor for Gastroschisis?

“…One factor to account for this is that over three-quarters of these mothers were under the age of 25 years and therefore high levels of smoking would be anticipated. These reported levels of smoking during pregnancy were higher than those reported in the two major US cases control studies of gastroschisis (Torfs et al 1994), (Werler et al 1992a), (Werler et al 2003). However, since these US studies were not maternal age matched and there are major cultural differences between the UK and USA these rates are not directly comparable.…”

“…In addition medical and developmental problems may result in the fetus and infant including intra-uterine growth restriction, small head circumference and an increased risk of necrotising enterocolitis, intra-ventricular haemorrhage and sudden infant death ( (Fox, 1994), (Castro et al 1993), (Cherukuri et al 1988), (Chiriboga et al 1999), (Bateman and Chiriboga, 2000), (Feng, 1993), (Czyrko et al 1991), (Singer et al 1994), (Kandall et al 1993), (Davidson-Ward et al 1992) (Werler et al 2003); (Torfs et al 1994) as well other links with other anomalies (Bingol et al 1987), (Martinez-Frias, 1999), (Fox, 1994), (Chasnoff et al 1988). In the longer term childhood behaviour problems (Chatterji and Markowitz, 2001), neurological abnormalities (Datta-Bhutada et al 1998), problems with later developmental abilities, for example, motor development, verbal skills and memory (Eyler et al 1998), (Swanson et al 1999), (Feng, 1993);…”

“…The lack of validation of data collected from medical notes and maternal interviews has been a limitation of previous case control studies that have investigated the association between recreational drug use and gastroschisis (Torfs et al 1994), (Werler et al 2003). A unique aspect of this study was, therefore hair analysis, which was used to overcome this limitation by validating data collected at maternal interview concerning recreational drug use.…”

“…The other major case control studies established to investigate the risk factors associated with gastroschisis are from Werler and colleagues in Boston (Werler et al 1992a(Werler et al , 1992b(Werler et al , 2003. In the first of these studies, cases of gastroschisis were identified from the Slone Epidemiology Unit Birth Defects Study (BDS) for the period 1976 to 1990.…”

“…The next stage of this study (Werler et al 2003) was to investigate the hypothesis that the use of vaso-constrictive drugs in early pregnancy increases the risk of gastroschisis and small intestinal atresia. In this analysis the researchers looked at the singular use of both medicinal and recreational vaso-constrictive drugs including pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, ephedrine, MDMA (ecstasy), amphetamines, cocaine and crack and their combined use with cigarette smoking.…”