Associations between Executive Functions and Sensorimotor Performance in Children at Risk for Learning Disabilities

Abstract

Executive functions (EF) and sensorimotor skills play a critical role in children’s goal-directed behavior and school readiness. The aim of the current study is to provide new insights into the relationship between executive functions and sensorimotor development by considering the risks associated with learning difficulties. Therefore, we investigate the predictive role of EF and sensorimotor skills in the development of learning difficulties during preschool years. Ninety-five preschool children (5–7 years old) were tested, comparing the performance of children that are at risk of learning difficulties ( n = 55 ) to the performance of typically developing children ( n = 40 ). Participants completed a battery for the assessment of sensorimotor skills (i.e., Southern California Sensory Integration Test: postural imitation, body midline crossing, bilateral motor coordination, and standing balance with eyes open) and executive functions (i.e., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and verbal working memory). Our results show that children at risk for learning difficulties exhibited more impairments on sensorimotor and EF measures (inhibition and verbal working memory) when compared with TD children. We ran three separate binary logistic regression analyses to assess the relative influence of EF and sensorimotor functions on predicting risk for learning difficulties. Our findings demonstrated that verbal working memory as EF function (odd ratio OR = 0.91 , 95% CI 0.78-0.91, P = 0.05 ) and standing balance skills as a sensorimotor skill (odd ratio OR = 0.86 , 95% CI 0.81-0.98, P = 0.01 ) were the strongest predictors of risk for learning difficulties. The findings point to the importance of supporting children’s executive function development and promoting sensorimotor development, as both fundamentally influence school readiness.

Assessment of Executive Functions in School Considering Motor and Sociodemographic Factors: A Joint Vision for School-Based Occupational Therapists and School Staff

“…They used some subtests of the Sensory Integration and Praxis Test (SIPT) and different aspects of EFs, such as response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and verbal working memory. Their results indicate that some skills, such as balance, bilateral coordination, working memory and response inhibition, predict risk for learning difficulties [21]. Accordingly, we agree with these authors that the model, which combines the evaluation of sensorimotor and executive functions, is the most convenient for detecting performance challenges in children.…”

“…We agree with Navarro-Soria that the grey path is easier for children and requires fewer cognitive resources, given that interference is not present as in the colour path or rings [28]. Furthermore, concerning the Impulsivity Control Index results, several authors have pointed out that inhibitory control is a variable that impacts participation and learning [16,21], which should be considered when addressing evaluations in the school setting.…”

“…Our results show the interplay between sociodemographic factors, motor skills, and executive functions in school-aged children. Our findings emphasise the critical role of family characteristics and support the growing body of literature advocating that schoolbased occupational therapists should conduct regular assessments to detect challenges in EFs in addition to sensory processing and motor skills [10,[14][15][16]19,21,22,41] to support children's academic and social development. Children from disadvantaged households are more likely to experience difficulties in both areas of development, so it is necessary to take action to ensure equal opportunities and minimise social inequalities.…”

“…This finding aligns with the results of a current study in Hungary. Tószegi et al (2023) evaluated 95 children between 5 and 7 years old, with 55 at risk of learning difficulties. They used some subtests of the Sensory Integration and Praxis Test (SIPT) and different aspects of EFs, such as response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and verbal working memory.…”

“…Thus, if children do not have sensorimotor difficulties but have performance issues associated with poor executive functioning, they may not receive occupational therapy services at school [19]. Therefore, simultaneously assessing EFs and motor development can be crucial to facilitating success in school [21]. Such research is essential to help school-based occupational therapists identify factors related to EFs.…”