Transfer RNA (tRNA)-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) are among the most ancient small RNAs in all domains of life and are generated by the cleavage of tRNAs. Emerging studies have begun to reveal the versatile roles of tsRNAs in fundamental biological processes, including gene silencing, ribosome biogenesis, retrotransposition, and epigenetic inheritance, which are rooted in tsRNA sequence conservation, RNA modifications, and protein-binding abilities. We summarize the mechanisms of tsRNA biogenesis and the impact of RNA modifications, and propose how thinking of tsRNA functionality from an evolutionary perspective urges the expansion of tsRNA research into a wider spectrum, including cross-tissue/cross-species regulation and harnessing of the 'tsRNA code' for precision medicine.
On the ancientness of tsRNAs/tRNAsWith the wide application of high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) (also called tDRs or tRNA-derived fragments, tRFs) are increasingly recognized as an emerging class of functional small noncoding RNAs (sncRNAs) in various fundamental biological and disease conditions [1,2]. tsRNAs have been identified in a wide range of species across all three domains of life, including Archaea, Bacteria, and some unicellular organisms (e.g., Protozoa), where other specialized small RNA pathways, such as miRNAs, siRNAs, and Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), are lacking [3][4][5][6][7]. These observations have positioned tsRNAs among the most ancient classes of sncRNAs for intra-and intercellular functionality and communication that may pre-date the emergence of more specialized sncRNAs. Highlights tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) are present across all three domains of life: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.