Atomic Spectroscopy, 1. General

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 2. Basic Principles 2.1. Atomic Structure 2.2. Plasmas 2.3. Emission and Absorption of Radiation 2.4. Ionization 2.5. Dissociation 2.6. Sources and Atom Cells 2.7. Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 3. Spectrometric Instrumentation 3.1. Figures of Merit of an Analytical Method 3.2. Optical Spectrometers 3.2.1. Optical Systems 3.2.2. Detectors 3.2.3. Nondispersive Spectrometers 3.3. Mass Spectrometers 3.3.1. Types of Mass Spectrometer 3.3.2. Ion Detection 3.3.3. Ion Extraction 3.4. Data Acquisition and Processing 4. Sample Introduction Devices 4.1. Pneumatic Nebulization 4.2. Ultrasonic Nebulization 4.3. Hydride Generation 4.4. Electrothermal Evaporation 4.4.1. The Volatilization Process 4.4.2. Types of Electrothermal Device 4.4.3. Temperature Programming 4.4.4. Analytical Performance 4.5. Direct Solid Sampling 4.5.1. Thermal Methods 4.5.2. Slurry Atomization 4.5.3. Arc and Spark Ablation 4.5.4. Laser Ablation 4.6. Cathodic Sputtering 5. Comparison With Other Methods 5.1. Power of Detection 5.2. Analytical Accuracy 5.3. Cost

Roman Law and Maritime Commerce

“…tituli picti, on Roman amphorae, 5,6,64,65,69,89,120,172,178 treaties between Rome and Carthage,15,19,42 trial,44,51,91,154,157,167n,196 trust,among business partners,57,59,60,67,69,79,92,110,112, weights, importance for commerce, 85, 86, 90, 102n, 118, 120, 138, 143, 154 wine trade associations, 57, 66-7 trade in, 16-7, 19, 65, 105n, 110, 120-1, 133n, 138, 145, 176 xenia see piracy…”

“…I would like to recall the model of distribution described by Russell, in which the complex inscriptions present on marble blocks constitute formulae that allowed officials to track the blocks until they reached their destination. 57 In that respect, it is interesting to see that in the case of Ostia, all the marbles bear that R/ in the inscription, so that the ratio took care of the distribution of these marbles the whole time. Differently, the inscriptions coming from Phrygia start including the R/ after AD 136 and those from Chemtou after AD 137.…”

“…56 Similarly, in the papyri, the so-called 'navigation clauses' in Nilotic contracts of carriage specified the time of day during which sailing was permitted to take place, the berths in which the captain was allowed to anchor and so forth. 57 In general, the reason for the insertion of these clauses was to limit the parties' exposure to risk, for example, by specifying that the maximum duration of the voyage should coincide with the end of the traditional sailing season, or that sailing was only to take place during daylight. In other words, the parties to the enterprise frequently set limits upon the freedom of the pilot to navigate and therefore upon the range of choices available to them in the process of making contingent decisions.…”

“…56 This mercantile practice had already carried on for some time in Egypt and elsewhere across the Mediterranean, where transport documents were used to ensure the correct identification of merchandise, its quality and quantity and to set out the various standard measures (such as the σηκῶματα, or mensae ponderariae) that were employed to check volume and weight. 57 These controls were performed both at the time of boarding (παράδοσις), with the delivery of a perforated tessera hung on a special instrument, and at the time of unloading, when the return of the tessera enabled the continuous monitoring of the handling of the goods during weighing (ζυγοστασία) and storage. 58 In addition, the δείγματα 59 was indispensable not only for sales by sample, but also in the documentation concerning bulk transport for the verification of the quality of the property that was returned.…”

“….' 56 Several merchants poured together their grain into Saufeius' ship 57 ; after a sea voyage the ship arrived safely at the port of destination 58 and Saufeius began to hand over the transported grain to each merchant. As it happened, he only managed to return his share to one of them; presumably by measuring the grain out of the ship.…”