Attributes of memory.

Underwood, Benton J.

doi:10.1037/h0028143

Cited by 569 publications

(387 citation statements)

References 38 publications

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“…Within this "modal model" of information processing, information that receives attention and elaboration is more likely to be subsequently available for retrieval (Brown & Craik, 2000). More important, memories are not believed to be stored in an all-or-none form, ala a storehouse model, but as a collection of attributes, which may include factors such as the time and place of the experience, the initial phoneme of a word, or the affective valence that a word carries (Underwood, 1969). Access to these attributes may determine whether a memory is retrieved, and research on phenomena such as tip-of-the-tongue has suggested that individual attributes may be sufficient to support successful memory retrieval (Koriat, Levy-Sadot, Edry, & de Marcas, 2003).…”

Section: Background From Cognitive Psychologymentioning

confidence: 99%

Retrieval of emotional memories.

Buchanan

2007

Psychological Bulletin

397

238

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Long-term memories are influenced by the emotion experienced during learning as well as by the emotion experienced during memory retrieval. The present article reviews the literature addressing the effects of emotion on retrieval, focusing on the cognitive and neurological mechanisms that have been revealed. The reviewed research suggests that the amygdala, in combination with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, plays an important role in the retrieval of memories for emotional events. The neural regions necessary for online emotional processing also influence emotional memory retrieval, perhaps through the reexperience of emotion during the retrieval process. Keywords emotion; memory; retrieval; amygdala; prefrontal cortex Retrieval of Emotional MemoriesMemories of our experiences are likely characterized by representations in the form of neuronal activity. Activity among a network of neurons represents a code for the experience of, say, a birthday party. When this network is activated by some cue that triggers a reexperience of that event, we are said to have recollected the birthday party. Emotional events are often remembered with greater accuracy and vividness (though these two characteristics do not always go together) than events lacking an emotional component (Reisberg & Hertel, 2005). This enhanced memory for emotional events has been attributed to interactions between the amygdala and other neural areas such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC) (Cahill & McGaugh, 1996). The amygdala is active during emotional situations, and this activity influences the encoding and consolidation of the memory trace for the emotional event (see LaBar & Cabeza, 2006;Phelps, 2004, for a review). These effects on the "front end" of memory (attention, encoding, the early stages of consolidation) have been well documented, but the influence of emotion and amygdala activity on memory retrieval has been more difficult to demonstrate. This difficulty is partly due to the fact that, by definition, an emotional event exerts its influence during the initial experience of the event. Understanding the influence of emotion on retrieval mechanisms could have utility in treating disorders of emotion and memory such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Davis & Whalen, 2001;Elzinga & Bremner, 2002), in which emotion may influence all phases of memory. Given that it is at the retrieval stage that the pathological effects of negative emotion are most often observed (Elzinga & Bremner, 2002;Williams & Scott, 1988), perhaps this is also where treatment may work most effectively. Recent work on the neurobiology of retrieval, extinction learning, and potential treatments for psychopathology highlight the broad influence that emotion exerts on memory retrieval mechanisms. In this review, I examine this influence and discuss the applications of this work across many areas of psychology.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tony W. Buchanan, who is now at the Department of Psychology...

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Section: Background From Cognitive Psychologymentioning

confidence: 99%

Retrieval of emotional memories.

Buchanan

2007

Psychological Bulletin

397

238

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“…By this view, speaker normalization becomes a testable hypothesis, rather than an assumed process, equally evidenced by positive or null effects. As it happens, many contemporary models resemble Semon's (1909Semon's ( /1923 theory, positing parallel access to stored traces (Eich, 1982;Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984;Hintzman, 1986Hintzman, , 1988Medin & Schaffer, 1978;Nosofsky, 1984Nosofsky, , 1986Underwood, 1969). Such theories are partly motivated by common findings of memory for "surface" details of experience.…”

Section: Speaker Normalizationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This model takes episodic storage to a logical extreme, assuming that all experiences create independent memory traces that store all perceptual and contextual details (cf. Underwood, 1969). Despite their separate storage and idiosyncratic attributes, aggregates of traces activated at retrieval create behavior.…”

Section: The Episodic Lexicon?mentioning

confidence: 99%

Echoes of echoes? An episodic theory of lexical access.

Goldinger

1998

Psychological Review

1,260

101

1,416

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In this article the author proposes an episodic theory of spoken word representation, perception, and production. By most theories, idiosyncratic aspects of speech (voice details, ambient noise, etc.) are considered noise and are filtered in perception. However, episodic theories suggest that perceptual details are stored in memory and are integral to later perception. In this research the author tested an episodic model (MINERVA 2; D. L. Hintzman, 1986) against speech production data from a word-shadowing task. The model predicted the shadowing-response-time patterns, and it correctly predicted a tendency for shadowers to spontaneously imitate the acoustic patterns of words and nonwords. It also correctly predicted imitation strength as a function of "abstract" stimulus properties, such as word frequency. Taken together, the data and theory suggest that detailed episodes constitute the basic substrate of the mental lexicon.

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“…Attributes have been divided into two general classes (Underwood , 1969), those which are involved in the retrieval of memories (the associative or retrieva l attributes) and those involved in discriminating among memories . This distinction refers to recall versus recognition .…”

Section: Individual Differences and Attributes Of Memorymentioning

confidence: 99%

Composition of episodic memory.

Underwood¹,

Boruch²,

Malmi³

1978

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

Self Cite

129

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The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the interrelationships among a number of episodic memory tasks, with a special interest in determining the correlations among various attributes of memory. The attributes investigated included imagery, associative, acoustic, temporal, affective, and frequency. The tasks were free recall, paired associates, serial, verbal discrimination, classical recognition, and memory span, as well as less frequently used tasks. The 200 undergraduate subjects were tested for 10 sessions, and 28 different measures of episodic memory were obtained from the tasks. In addition, five measures of semantic memory were available.All scores were initially intercorrelated. Measures of episodic memory and semantic memory were generally unrelated. Among the measures of episodic learning, clustering was found to be unrelated to performance on other tasks. This was also true for the double-function verbal-discrimination task and for a task designed specifically to measure susceptibility to interference. Twenty-two of the measures of episodic memory were included in a factor analysis from which five factors emerged-factors which were closely tied to tasks. One factor was tied to freerecall tasks, another to paired-associate and serial tasks. Memory span, including span for digits and for letters of high and low acoustic similarity, constituted a third factor. A fourth factor involved verbal-discrimination lists, and frequency assimilation and classical recognition constituted a fifth.The failure of attributes to form factors seems to have been due to two contrary forces. First, among tasks in which associative learning is required, the individual differences in associative learning are so strong that any additional variation that might be produced by attributes has little influence. The fundamental problem is to understand associative learning, and the attribute conception has little to contribute to this issue. Second, there was some evidence that experienced subjects can set aside attributes when use of the attributes as a, basis for responding produces interference. The presence of attributes in memory and the utilization of attributes for responding are two independent matters.

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Attributes of memory.

Cited by 569 publications

References 38 publications

Retrieval of emotional memories.

Retrieval of emotional memories.

Echoes of echoes? An episodic theory of lexical access.

Composition of episodic memory.

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