Avian Influenza in wild birds from Chile, 2007–2009

Avian influenza in Latin America: A systematic review of serological and molecular studies from 2000-2015

“…Due to the emergence of AIVs in Chile, the Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero de Chile (Agricultural and Livestock Service of Chile) established a sentinel surveillance program and found LPAI H13N2, H5N9, and H13N9 AIVs in seagulls (Table 1) between 2007 and 2009. All LPAI found in Chile have been phylogenetically associated to North American strains recovered from wild birds [67]. …”

Avian Influenza Virus H5 Strain with North American and Eurasian Lineage Genes in an Antarctic Penguin

“…These birds share a habitat, enabling close contact ( 5 , 8 ) and introducing the possibility of AIV spillover from flying birds to penguins. The chinstrap penguin H5 strain also clustered near the H5 strain isolated in 2008 from a kelp gull ( Larus dominicanus ) in Chile ( 9 ), indicating a potential route of transmission and introduction of AIV into Antarctic penguins (Figure, panel A). Kelp gull colonies are found in the Antarctic, the sub-Antarctic territory, and along the coastline of Chile and Argentina.…”

Avian Influenza in Wild Birds from South America: Review, Implications and Perspectives

“…13,14 In comparison, studies in South America have found an overall prevalence of 0.21% in Anseriformes (range: 0.25-0.86%) and 0.32% in Charadriiformes (range: 0.21-3.80%) (Table 3). 33,[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44] It is worth noting that Mathieu et al stands out among South American studies for having found a slightly higher AIV prevalence (3.8%), which is probably related to the fact that this study investigated gulls that had been found dead, as opposed to actively capturing healthy birds in their natural habitat. 36 The reasons as to why South American wild birds appear to have a lower prevalence of AIV are unclear, and future studies will be necessary to confirm whether this is a widespread pattern and identify possible causes, or to dismiss the possibility that this reflects differences in sample collection season or storage.…”

“…Examples of the first category include AIV isolates obtained from wild birds in northern Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Peru. 35 35,36 A possible explanation is that this strain is closely related to those from other gull species, such as the lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus), whose migratory routes extends longitudinally from North America to Europe, hence providing opportunities for intercontinental virus exchange. 54 More broadly, however, it is fair to state that the genetics of South American isolates corroborate the hypothesis that there are Eurasian and American clades of AIV, and that genetic exchange between these continents is limited.…”