Avoidance learning: a review of theoretical models and recent developments

Krypotos, Angelos‐Miltiadis; Effting, Marieke; Kindt, Merel; Beckers, Tom

doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00189

Cited by 302 publications

(257 citation statements)

References 149 publications

(180 reference statements)

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“…Alternative theories have been advanced based on relief due to the nonoccurrence of the punisher that may be intrinsically rewarding, 12 expectancy learning, 6,17,19 negative occasion setting, 7 and action tendencies 2,14 (for a review see Ref. 15). Third, future research should consider the motivational context in which conditioning occurs.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

Acquisition and extinction of operant pain-related avoidance behavior using a 3 degrees-of-freedom robotic arm

Meulders

Franssen²,

Fonteyne³

2016

Pain

124

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Ample empirical evidence endorses the role of associative learning in pain-related fear acquisition. Nevertheless, research typically focused on self-reported and psychophysiological measures of fear. Avoidance, which is overt behavior preventing the occurrence of an aversive (painful) stimulus, has been largely neglected so far. Therefore, we aimed to fill this gap and developed an operant conditioning procedure for pain-related avoidance behavior. Participants moved their arm to a target location using the HapticMaster (FCS Robotics; Moog Inc, East Aurora, New York), a 3 degrees-of-freedom, force-controlled robotic arm. Three movement trajectories led to the target location. If participants in the Experimental Group took the shortest/easiest trajectory, they always received a painful stimulus (T1 = 100% reinforcement; no resistance). If they deviated from this trajectory, the painful stimulus could be partly or totally prevented (T2 = 50% reinforcement; T3 = 0% reinforcement), but more effort was needed (T2 = moderate resistance and deviation; T3 = strongest resistance and largest deviation). The Yoked Group received the same reinforcement schedule irrespective of their own behavior. During the subsequent extinction phase, no painful stimuli were delivered. Self-reported pain-expectancy and pain-related fear were assessed, and avoidance behavior was operationalized as the maximal distance from the shortest trajectory. During acquisition, the Experimental Group reported more pain-related fear and pain-expectancy to T1 vs T2 vs T3 and deviated more from the shortest trajectory than the Yoked Group. During subsequent extinction, avoidance behavior, self-reported fear, and pain-expectancy decreased significantly, but conditioned differences persisted despite the absence of painful stimuli. To conclude, this operant learning task might provide a valid paradigm to study pain-related avoidance behavior in future studies.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

Acquisition and extinction of operant pain-related avoidance behavior using a 3 degrees-of-freedom robotic arm

Meulders

Franssen²,

Fonteyne³

2016

Pain

124

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“…Avoidance symptoms result from trying to attempt to suppress such activation (i.e., symptoms of re-experiencing). In addition, the avoidance of genuinely threatening stimuli or situations is a key characteristic of adaptive fear (Krypotos, Effting, Kindt, & Beckers, 2015). This means that PTSD patients will try to avoid intrusive memories, as well as actively avoiding any confrontation with trauma-associated stimuli that may cause intrusive memories (Brewin & Holmes, 2003; Williams & Moulds, 2007).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impact of new traumatic or stressful life events on pre-existing PTSD in traumatized refugees: results of a longitudinal study

Schock

Böttche

Rosner

et al. 2016

European Journal of Psychotraumatology

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BackgroundA significant proportion of trauma survivors experience an additional critical life event in the aftermath. These renewed experiences of traumatic and stressful life events may lead to an increase in trauma-related mental health symptoms.MethodIn a longitudinal study, the effects of renewed experiences of a trauma or stressful life event were examined. For this purpose, refugees seeking asylum in Germany were assessed for posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS), Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS), anxiety, and depression (Hopkins Symptom Checklist [HSCL-25]) before treatment start as well as after 6 and 12 months during treatment (N=46). Stressful life events and traumatic events were recorded monthly. If a new event happened, PDS and HSCL were additionally assessed directly afterwards. Mann–Whitney U-tests were performed to calculate the differences between the group that experienced an additional critical event (stressful vs. trauma) during treatment (n=23) and the group that did not (n=23), as well as differences within the critical event group between the stressful life event group (n=13) and the trauma group (n=10).ResultsRefugees improved significantly during the 12-month period of our study, but remained severely distressed. In a comparison of refugees with a new stressful life event or trauma, significant increases in PTS, anxiety, and depressive symptoms were found directly after the experience, compared to the group without a renewed event during the 12 months of treatment. With regard to the different critical life events (stressful vs. trauma), no significant differences were found regarding overall PTS, anxiety, and depression symptoms. Only avoidance symptoms increased significantly in the group experiencing a stressful life event.ConclusionAlthough all clinicians should be aware of possible PTS symptom reactivation, especially those working with refugees and asylum seekers, who often experience new critical life events, should understand symptom fluctuation and address it in treatment.Highlights of the articleWithin a longitudinal design, refugees currently in treatment are compared concerning symptom course after new traumatic or stressful events.New stressful life events and traumatic events increase posttraumatic, anxious, and depressive symptoms in the first 6 months after the events.Stressful and traumatic events overall did not show differential symptom exacerbations.Only avoidance symptoms were an exception; stressful life events were associated with an increase in PTS avoidance symptoms.Because reducing avoidance is the pivotal mechanism of psychotherapy with PTSD patients, clinicians should anticipate PTS symptom reactivation when patients are re-exposed to significant stressful stimuli, especially with asylum seekers and refugees, who often experience new stressful events.

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“…Under this broad heading, different forms of avoidance are recognized 25–35 . The broadest distinction is between passive and active avoidance.…”

Section: What Is Avoidance Conditioning?mentioning

confidence: 99%

The birth, death and resurrection of avoidance: a reconceptualization of a troubled paradigm

et al. 2016

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Research on avoidance conditioning began in the late 1930s as a way to use laboratory experiments to better understand uncontrollable fear and anxiety. Avoidance was initially conceived of as a two-factor learning process in which fear is initially acquired through Pavlovian aversive conditioning (so-called fear conditioning), and then behaviors that reduce the fear aroused by the Pavlovian conditioned stimulus are reinforced through instrumental conditioning. Over the years, criticisms of both the avoidance paradigm and the two-factor fear theory arose. By the mid 1980s, avoidance had fallen out of favor as an experimental model relevant to fear and anxiety. However recent progress in understanding the neural basis of Pavlovian conditioning has stimulated a new wave of research on avoidance. The new work has fostered new insights into contributions of not only Pavlovian and instrumental learning, but also habit learning, to avoidance, and has suggested that the reinforcing event underlying the instrumental phase should be conceived in terms of cellular and molecular events in specific circuits rather than in terms of vague notions of fear reduction. In our approach, defensive reactions (freezing), actions (avoidance) and habits (habitual avoidance) are viewed as being controlled by unique circuits that operate non-consciously in the control of behavior, and that are distinct from the circuits that give rise to conscious feelings of fear and anxiety. These refinements, we suggest, overcome older criticisms, justifying the value of the new wave of research on avoidance, and offering a fresh perspective on the clinical implications of this work.

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Avoidance learning: a review of theoretical models and recent developments

Cited by 302 publications

References 149 publications

Acquisition and extinction of operant pain-related avoidance behavior using a 3 degrees-of-freedom robotic arm

Acquisition and extinction of operant pain-related avoidance behavior using a 3 degrees-of-freedom robotic arm

Impact of new traumatic or stressful life events on pre-existing PTSD in traumatized refugees: results of a longitudinal study

The birth, death and resurrection of avoidance: a reconceptualization of a troubled paradigm

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