Bases and Basic Materials in Industrial and Environmental Chemistry: A Review of Commercial Processes

Abstract

The practical application of liquids and solid bases in industrial and environmental processes is reviewed. Liquid bases include water solutions of metal hydroxides such as caustics and potash, amines, phosphorus compounds and other molecular bases, solutions and slurries of alkali and alkaline-earth carbonates, organic solutions of organometallics, and superbases. Solid bases include basic clays, alkaline-earth oxides, alkali metals containing oxides and zeolites, synthetic hydrotalcites, rare-earth oxides and mixed oxides, impregnated carbons, and supported alkali metals. Some health and safety considerations are discussed, together with process features. Conclusions about the future use of bases and the perspective of a more massive application of solid bases are offered.

Acid–base characterization of heterogeneous catalysts: an up-to-date overview

“…For MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO on zirconia the catalytic activity was observed to increase as the ionic radius of the metal cation increased, suggesting the impact of base strength on catalytic performance, as described below (''FTIR analysis'' section and Figs. 8,9).…”

“…The most numerous catalytic reactions are known to be catalyzed by solid acid catalysts, which are widely used for oil refining and in the chemical industry. Solid acids of different nature, such as zeolites, oxides, mixed oxides, sulfated oxides, acid resins, protonic heteropolyoxoanions or phosphates are used in important industrial processes [7,8]. Basic catalysts, such as ZnO, La 2 O 3 , ThO 2 , ZrO 2 , hydrotalcites, hydroxyapatites, alkaline earth metal oxides, basic zeolites, solid superbases as verkades, guanidines, ylides, etc., are also used in many industrial processes [7,8], but less frequently.…”

“…Solid acids of different nature, such as zeolites, oxides, mixed oxides, sulfated oxides, acid resins, protonic heteropolyoxoanions or phosphates are used in important industrial processes [7,8]. Basic catalysts, such as ZnO, La 2 O 3 , ThO 2 , ZrO 2 , hydrotalcites, hydroxyapatites, alkaline earth metal oxides, basic zeolites, solid superbases as verkades, guanidines, ylides, etc., are also used in many industrial processes [7,8], but less frequently. The latter aspect is due to the catalysts sensitivity to atmospheric CO 2 , with formation of surface (hydrogen) carbonates, which poison basic sites and necessitate a strong thermal activation before use to get rid of them and to free the active sites.…”

Mechanistic Studies of Solid Acids and Base‐Catalyzed Clean Technologies

“…The development of solid acid catalysts has been surveyed in several reviews [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Catalysis by solid bases and the mechanism of base-catalyzed reactions such as isomerization of alkenes and alkynes, aldol addition and aldol condensation, Henry reaction (nitro-aldol reaction), Knoevenagel condensation, Michael addition, the Tishchenko reaction, alkylation reactions, and addition reactions such as addition of amines to epoxides, transfer hydrogenation (Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reaction), esterification and transesterification, and liquid-phase oxidations including Baeyer-Villiger oxidation and alkene epoxidation have been recently emphasized by Ono and Hattori [11], encompassing many splendid reviews and papers [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20].…”

“…The development of solid acid catalysts has been surveyed in several reviews [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Catalysis by solid bases and the mechanism of base-catalyzed reactions such as isomerization of alkenes and alkynes, aldol addition and aldol condensation, Henry reaction (nitro-aldol reaction), Knoevenagel condensation, Michael addition, the Tishchenko reaction, alkylation reactions, and addition reactions such as addition of amines to epoxides, transfer hydrogenation (Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reaction), esterification and transesterification, and liquid-phase oxidations including Baeyer-Villiger oxidation and alkene epoxidation have been recently emphasized by Ono and Hattori [11], encompassing many splendid reviews and papers [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20].The first part of this chapter is intended to survey recent literature on new catalytic materials because the development of new types of metal oxides and layered-and carbon-based materials with different morphologies opens up novel acid-base catalysis that enables new type of clean reaction technologies. Mechanistic considerations of acid-and base-catalyzed reactions should result in new clean catalytic processes for Green and Sustainable Chemistry, for example, transformations of biorenewable feedstock into value-added chemicals and fuels [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35].…”