Basic Emotions, Natural Kinds, Emotion Schemas, and a New Paradigm

Abstract

Research on emotion flourishes in many disciplines and specialties, yet experts cannot agree on its definition. Theorists and researchers use the term emotion in ways that imply different processes and meanings. Debate continues about the nature of emotions, their functions, their relations to broad affective dimensions, the processes that activate them, and their role in our daily activities and pursuits. I will address these issues here, specifically in terms of basic emotions as natural kinds, the nature of emotion schemas, the development of emotion-cognition relations that lead to emotion schemas, and discrete emotions in relation to affective dimensions. Finally, I propose a new paradigm that assumes continual emotion as a factor in organizing consciousness and as an influence on mind and behavior. The evidence reviewed suggests that a theory that builds on concepts of both basic emotions and emotion schemas provides a viable research tool and is compatible with more holistic or dimensional approaches.

Affective neuroscience of pleasure: reward in humans and animals

“…This challenge is difficult because a rewarding stimulus or event will elicit many or all of these reward components simultaneously and so activate many brain systems at the same time. Careful studies are needed to tease apart whether activity in a particular brain region belongs most to the 'liking', 'wanting', or learning sub-components of reward and to understand how components are assembled by larger limbic circuits into an integrated reward system (Baldo and Kelley 2007;Balleine and Killcross 2006;Beaver et al 2006;Burke et al 2008;Di Chiara and Bassareo 2007;Evans et al 2006;Everitt and Robbins 2005;Izard 2007; Koob and Le Moal 2006;Kringelbach 2004;Leyton et al 2005;Panksepp 2007;Salamone et al 2007;Schultz 2006;Volkow et al 2006;Wise 2006). …”

“…These include the possibility that, even in humans, subcortical structures are the chief generators of basic pleasures (Izard 2007;Kringelbach 2008;Panksepp 2007;Smith et al 2008;Steiner 1973). At its extreme, this position views hedonic reactions as arising from subcortical structures even when they are on their own and unable to interact with neocortex and is in part based on evidence that human reactions to pleasant events may persist after major cortical atrophy.…”

Stimulating positive emotional experiences in mathematics learning: influence of situational and personal factors

“…Although there seems to be little consensus on the definition of emotions (Izard, 2007) they are commonly described as brief, interrelated, and synchronized responses to some external or internal event of particular significance for the organism (e.g., Scherer, 2001). The responses are considered to encompass various aspects, such as: cognitive appraisals, physiological events (e.g., neurological and hormonal), action tendencies (motivation), verbal and non-verbal expressions, and feelings.…”

“…Fredrickson (2001) argues that enjoyment, or joy as she conceptualizes it, provides the energy to play, push the limit, or be creative. Though enjoyment is suggested to be "aimless," interest and curiosity have been suggested to be activating emotions that focus attention and elicit an urge to explore, pursue novelty, take in new information, and expand the self (Fredrickson, 2001;Izard, 2007). Hence, enjoyment, curiosity, and interest are highly adaptive emotions in learning situations, where "…the playfulness of the emotion joy combines with the exploratory and information seeking of the emotion interest" (Ainley & Ainley, 2011, p. 5).…”

An appraisal theory of empathy and other vicarious emotional experiences.

“…In some of their early research, appraisal theorists tried to find combinations of appraisals that could map out typical emotional experience (Scherer, 1984;C. A. Smith & Ellsworth, 1985).…”