Battery Raw Materials - Where from and Where to?

Abstract

© V o lk s w a g e n g The global electric car fleet grew to 10.9 million vehicles in 2020 [1], which amounts to three million more than in the previous year. With more than five million electric cars on the road, China is still the undisputed leader, followed by the USA. with 1.77 million. Germany has made its way into third place with almost 570,000 electric vehicles [1]. In 2020, the number of newly registered electric cars reached a record high of 3.18 million units. From 2030 onward, they could make up between 25 and 75 % of new registrations. This will lead to a demand for battery power of between 1 and 6 TWh per year, depending on which study one reads [2].As electric vehicles become more widespread, the demand for special raw materials for the vehicles and, in particular, for the batteries will continue to grow. All the forecasts indicate that lithium-ion batteries will be the standard solution for electric cars over the next ten years and so the main substances needed will be the chemical elements graphite, cobalt, lithium, manganese and nickel. Despite the developments in cell chemistry, the proportion of lithium by weight in each cell of around 72 g/kg is not likely to reduce noticeably during this period, according to estimates by the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (ISI). However, the proportion of cobalt could fall significantly from 200 g/kg of cell weight to around 60 g/kg. Therefore, the demand for primary raw materials for vehicle battery production by 2030 should amount to between 250,000 and 450,000 t of lithium, between 250,000 and 420,000 t of cobalt and between 1.3 and 2.4 million t of nickel [2].

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“…14 See Carey Gillam's (2017Gillam's ( , 2021 investigative work on the harms of glysophate and her brilliant unmasking of Monsanto's deliberate campaign to hide it. 15 For example, the materials needed for electric car batteries are graphite (sourced mainly in China, Mozambique, Tanzania and Madagascar), cobalt (sourced mainly from the Democratic Republic of Congo), lithium (currently sourced mainly from Australia, Chile and Argentina), and nickel (sourced mainly from various countries in southeast Asia) (Backhaus, 2021).…”

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“…The exponentially alarming need for lithium reserves to cater to future battery demands necessitates the development of next-generation sodium- and potassium-based rechargeable batteries. − Also, the concerns over using transition metal-based electrodes in conventional rechargeable batteries have led to increased attention to organic counterparts. , Using redox-active organic electrodes as a replacement offers a green and sustainable solution. The versatility of these materials by molecular modifications and functionalization has increased the prospects of these class of electrode materials. − In practice, organic electrodes have been tested for various alkali metal ion and redox flow batteries. − Thus, considering the environmental footprint, sustainability and the need for beyond lithium candidates, we attempt to develop potassium-based energy storage systems with organic electrodes and aqueous electrolytes. , …”

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“…A lithium-ion battery is composed of several recyclable materials (table 1) [73], and the most valuable ones -like nickel and cobalt -are in the cathode. 100% of lithium, nickel, manganese, and cobalt, and 90% of aluminum, copper and plastics in a battery can be recycled.…”

“…It is estimated the world will need 250,000~450,000 t of lithium, 1.3~2.4 million ton of nickel, and 250,000~420,000 t of cobalt to produce batteries in 2030. Although known reserves are sufficient to meet demand for metals in batteries, temporary shortages and prices increases are expected, caused by fluctuations in demand, and exporting issues, as extraction of minerals like lithium and cobalt is highly concentrated in a few countries [36,73].…”

“…Lithium-ion will continue to be the battery chemistry of choice for at least the next ten years [73]. But future batteries may require different metals in the cathode, making demand for those materials uncertain ten to fifteen years ahead [37,72].…”