Beauty and chemistry: the independent origins of synthetic lead white in east and west Eurasia

Abstract

Lead white is one of the most important pigments in human history, and its synthesis has promoted the development of art and cosmetics. The corrosion approach to synthesize lead white appeared in Greece during the fourth century BCE, and since then lead white has been produced on a large-scale and widely used in painting and cosmetics across Europe. However, when and how synthetic lead white appeared in east Eurasia and whether it was also involved with beauty remained unclear. Here, we investigate some white cosmetic residues from the Liangdaicun site during the eighth century BCE in northern China through FTIR, XRD, SEM-EDS, radioactive and stable carbon isotope analyses. The results show that these residues were the earliest synthesized lead white in the world to date, which was produced by the precipitation method in solution distinct from the corrosion method practiced in ancient Greece. Thus, the synthesis of lead white should have evolved independently in east and west Eurasia during the first millennium BCE. The mass production of synthetic lead white with lower cost promoted the widespread use of white makeup in China and the Mediterranean World, which triggered a cosmetic revolution and highlighted that the pursuit of beauty stimulated the development of chemistry in human history, especially the earliest wet chemistry practice in China.

Chemical profiling of a 130‐year‐old manuscript reveals the early use of synthetic lead white correction fluid in ancient China

“…The carbon isotope δ 13 C is another indicator for more precisely identifying the carbon sources in lead white synthesis (Han, Zhang, et al, 2022; Messager et al, 2022). The δ 13 C and δ 18 O values of the tested samples are −28‰ and −18.71‰, respectively.…”

“…Humans have a long history of lead white usage in both eastern Eurasia (Han, Zhang, et al, 2022) and western Eurasia (Beck et al, 2018; Walter et al, 1999). Craftsmen first explored natural cerussite minerals during the fifth–second millennium BCE in southern Europe (~4000 BCE) (Kramberger et al, 2021), Egypt (~3000 BCE) (Beck et al, 2018), Mesopotamia (~2500 BCE) (Hauptmann et al, 2016), Iran (~3000 BCE), and the Indus Valley (~2500 BCE) (Vidale et al, 2016).…”

“…Oxygen isotopes can also provide hints for provenance (Han, Chong, et al, 2021), but they are difficult to use as provenance evidence for lead white production. Nevertheless, the oxygen isotope is still provided in our research (Han, Zhang, et al, 2022) for reference in further studies. It is reminded that the other carbonate in the residue could have influenced the δ 13 C test, though its minor content may not influence the general conclusion.…”

“…By this process, the litharge was dissolved in distilled vinegar to form a saturated solution of lead acetate, and carbon dioxide was blown through the liquid for the precipitation of lead white, which can produce lead white particles of uniform size (Figure S7). It is worth noting that ancient Chinese craftsmen practiced similar wet processes to produce cosmetic lead white during the first millennium BC (Han, Zhang, et al, 2022). Practically, hydrocerussite pigment produced a paint with a consistency layer that was whiter and creamy, easy to apply, and smooth out (Polkownik, 2018), which also explained the use of hydrocerussite-rich particles as correction fluid.…”

“…In ancient times, the corrosion method to synthesize lead white was predominantly used in antiquity in west Eurasia (Katsaros et al, 2010). In ancient China, a recent report proved that synthetic lead white appeared in eighth century BCE produced by means of wet chemistry (Han, Zhang, et al, 2022). Researchers also found early application of lead white as a pigment in the terra-cotta warrior paint layer (third century BC) (Li, 1983).…”