Behavioral intervention for stress management in sports.

Abstract

This article covers stress management for athletes beginning with a brief behavioral conceptualization of athletic performance and analysis of stress. Examples of external and internal stressors are offered, as well as of stress responses from autonomic, somatic, and cognitive domains. Further discussed are specific types of stress management approaches used with athletes, and associated with external vs. internal sources of stress, and with the 3 stress response domains. Although the article focuses on the author's own conceptualization and experiences with sport interventions, relevant research results from the current literature are cited to provide a broader context. 343are from my experience with Olympic and national team athletes. Research findings relevant to stress reduction in sport are briefly described. ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE: A BEHAVIORAL ANALYSISAthletic performance is a complex set of cognitive, emotional, and motoric responses that have been shaped through learning experiences. The most important outcome is reflected in performance under competitive conditions. Performance during practice sessions, no matter how perfect, is considered to be a subgoal. Athletic performance is similar to other performing arts, including theater, dance, music, and public speaking, whereby the primary goal is to display one's skills during the actual play, recital, concert, or public appearance, and the principles of psychomotor learning and performance are relevant to human performance in general (Sport performances are influenced by several component elements: the strength of correct athletic responses, the presence of interfering incorrect responses, and the athlete's level of transfer of responses from the practice environment to the competitive environment (Suinn, 1989). The level of potential skill and the pace of acquisition of such skill are influenced by factors such as the athlete's genetic competencies, past exposure to sports training and performing (which teaches "learning to learn" athletic skills), the quality of coaching, training programs, nutritional planning, and so forth. For any single performance, other variables may restrict the level of actual achievement such as in the negative impact of jet lag, temporary health problems, or recent life stresses.Of major relevance to this article are the three components of correct responses, incorrect responses, and transferability of skills. Correct athletic responses involve those that make up the primary positive aspects of the sport: the motor skill itself, preparatory-arousal responses, cognitive or cueinstructional responses, and attentional-concentration responses. Incorrect athletic responses involve interfering motor habits, inappropriate arousal or conditioned emotionality, and negative cognitions. The transferability of responses from practice settings to competitive settings is a function of the nature of the practice and its similarity to game stimulus conditions. 344Suinn

Application of Mental Skills Training in Surgery: A Review of Its Effectiveness and Proposed Next Steps

“…For surgeons, energy management techniques, which include relaxation strategies like centered breathing that aim to counter the autonomic response to increased adrenaline, [47][48] may be effective to ensure that arousal is maintained at an optimal level for performance in situations during surgery that cause stress levels to increase. Surgeons may also be able to derive performance benefits from attention and thought management skills, as these techniques may be able to prevent their thoughts from shifting off-target or quickly bring them back on-target, which can help maintain their full concentration to the procedure.…”

“…[45][46] Comprehensive reviews on the efficacy of imagery to enhance sport performance have shown significant benefits compared to controls. 48 applied with athletes and surgeons of different experience levels and found that imagery is most useful when it is applied to expert performers as a supplemental training tool to refine and improve skills. 8 The authors argued that many surgeons could benefit by adopting imagery as part of their surgical preparation.…”

“…One of the most impactful methods to reduce the effects of stress is to use breathing-based relaxation strategies that focus on deep, rhythmic, diaphragmatic breathing to counter the shallow breathing response to stress. [47][48] Shallow breathing is the autonomic response to prepare the body to fight or flee against a perceived threat, to ensure oxygen is entering the blood stream. Deep breathing counters this response, and leads to a calming effect.…”

“…44 Mental skills interventions aim to help performers consistently perform in the upper range of their abilities. Specific mental skills applied for performance enhancement have included mental imagery, [45][46] energy management, 44,[47][48] attention and thought management, [48][49] goal-setting, 50 and performance routines. 51 In the following paragraphs we will review which of these mental skills have been used in surgery, to what extent, and what evidence of efficacy exists.…”

Indicators of Music Performance Anxiety in Nonverbal Behaviors: A Case Report of a Classical Vocal Soloist

“…Behavior techniques can be learned to reduce the effect of external and internal stressors on achieving peak performance [30]. Drawing on ideas from sports psychology, performance-based strategies, such as Anxiety Management Training [31], focus on embedding relaxation techniques and cognitive skills to deal with unhelpful thoughts within the program of skill acquisition.…”