Two experiments explored the effect of unobtrusively induced expressions of approach and avoidance on consumers' evaluation of well-known products. In Study 1, valenced objects were presented moving horizontally or vertically on a screen, thereby inducing either head shaking or head nodding. Objects were also presented without movement. Induced nodding led to more favorable evaluations of positively valenced products but did not affect the evaluation of negatively valenced ones. Similarly, head shaking led to more unfavorable evaluations of negatively valenced products but did not affect the evaluation of positive ones. In Study 2, participants evaluated positively valenced products more favorably when they flexed their arms while making the evaluation and evaluated negatively valenced products more unfavorably when they extended their arms during evaluation. However, arm flexion had no effect on evaluations of negative products, and arm extensions had no effect on evaluations of positive ones. Participants' willingness to buy the products followed a similar pattern. The theoretical implications and the applications of these body feedback effects are discussed.Expressive behaviors are typically viewed as a reaction to stimuli in the external world. People nod when they are in agreement and they embrace when they like each other. However, behavior can influence the way we perceive people and objects. Research on the impact of body feedback (for reviews, see Adelman & Zajonc, 1989;Förster, 1995;Izard, 1990) has repeatedly demonstrated that unobtrusively induced expression patterns can unintentionally influence cognition, emotion, and behavior. These results have provided strong evidence that affective or experiential cues have a direct influence on judgments, including attitudes (see, for example, Bodur, Brinberg, & Coupey, 2000;Breckler, 1984;Haugtvedt, 1997;Herr, 1995;Miniard & Barone, 1997;Reed, Wooten, & Bolton, 2002;Schwarz, 1997;Schwarz & Strack, 1991;Zajonc & Markus, 1982).In the following studies, we investigate if the evaluation of well-known consumer goods can be influenced by unobtrusive expression patterns such as nodding or shaking the head, or by even more rudimentary components of approach and avoidance behavior, specifically, arm flexion and arm extension.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDSeveral experiments have shown that unobtrusively induced expression patterns influence participants' reported feelings (e.g., Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992;Stepper & Strack, 1993;Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). For example, participants feel pride more intensely if they experience positive feedback while maintaining a positive, upright body position than if they receive the same feedback while in a negative, slouched position (Stepper & Strack). Body feedback can also influence judgments of external stimuli (e.g., Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988;. In the classic "pen study" by Strack et al. (1988), participants who held a pen with their teeth (which activates the zygomatic muscles used for smiling) rated cartoons to b...