Beyond black and white: Color and mortality in post-reconstruction era North Carolina

Abstract

A growing empirical literature in economics and sociology documents the existence of differences in social and economic outcomes between mixed-race blacks and other blacks . However, few researchers have considered whether the advantages associated with mixed-race status may have also translated into differences in mortality outcomes between subgroups of blacks and how both groups compared to whites. We employ previously untapped 1880 North Carolina Mortality census records in conjunction with data from the 1880 North Carolina Population Census to examine whether mulatto, or mixed-race blacks may have experienced mortality advantages over to their colored, or non-mixed race counterparts. For men between the ages of 20-44, estimates demonstrate that all black males are more likely than whites to die. Although our results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in mortality between mulatto and colored blacks, there are some indications that mulatto males may have enjoyed a slight mortality advantage compared to their colored counterparts. However, we find a substantial mortality advantage associated with mixed-race status among women. These findings indicate that mixed-race women, rather than men, may have accrued any mortality advantages associated with color and white ancestry.

The color of death: race, observed skin tone, and all-cause mortality in the United States

“…We do not know if there is a valid relationship between skin tone and mortality in the modern U.S. Three studies have examined the relationship between skin tone and mortality, each with distinct limitations. One article, Green and Hamilton (2013), examined the relationship between skin tone and mortality in the immediate post-Reconstruction era. They divided the black population of North Carolina from the 1880 U.S. census into two groups – mulattoes and colored (i.e.…”

Color Crit: Critical Race Theory and the History and Future of Colorism in the United States

“…Mulattos were advantaged relative to “regular” Black people in a number of arenas. They had more wealth (Bodenhorn & Ruebeck, 2007), more successful businesses (Schweninger, 1989, 1999), better jobs (Gullickson, 2010; Saperstein & Gullickson, 2013), they lived longer (Green & Hamilton, 2013), they had bigger families (Frazier, 1933), and during slavery they were more likely to be manumitted (Bodenhorn, 2011). Disproportionate manumission created stark differences in the color of slaves and the free Black population.…”

Genesis of U.S. Colorism and Skin Tone Stratification: Slavery, Freedom, and Mulatto-Black Occupational Inequality in the Late 19th Century

“…The preference for Whiteness thesis was arguably codified during chattel slavery, particularly the history of miscegenation and slave owner preferences for light-skinned and mixed-race Mulatto slaves (Frazier, 1930; Toplin, 1979). Indeed, a growing number of studies examine the social and economic differences between Mulattos and Blacks in the late-19th century, showing Mulattos enjoyed better outcomes on almost every measure (Bodenhorn & Ruebeck, 2007; Green & Hamilton, 2013; Gullickson, 2010; Saperstein & Gullickson, 2013). Yet, despite anecdotal acknowledgment of color stratification’s origins in antebellum slavery and evidence of Mulatto advantage during the period, few studies attempt to empirically connect antebellum life to 19th century Mulatto–Black stratification as a basis for exploring the genesis of skin tone stratification among African Americans.…”

“…They persisted through reconstruction, up until the start of Jim Crow when the Census dropped the category altogether. Through the rest of the 19th century, Mulattos continued to enjoy greater occupational prestige (Gullickson, 2010; Saperstein & Gullickson, 2013), lower mortality rates (Green & Hamilton, 2013), and lower child mortality rates (Frazier, 1933).…”

“…Some researchers have already assumed this task. They show when compared with Blacks, Mulattos had greater occupational prestige (Gullickson, 2010; Saperstein & Gullickson, 2013), lower mortality rates (Green & Hamilton, 2013), lower child mortality rates (Frazier, 1933), and greater wealth (Bodenhorn & Ruebeck, 2007; Schweninger, 1990). Drawing on this work, I can use 19th-century stratification between Blacks and Mulattos to examine whether early instances of American colorism were indeed rooted in the social circumstances unique to chattel slavery.…”