Bio-acceptability of wearable sensors: a mechanistic study towards evaluating ionic leaching induced cellular inflammation

Abstract

The recent need for remote health wellness monitoring has led to the extensive use of wearable sensors. Owing to their increased use, these sensors are required to exhibit both functionality and safety to the user. A major component in the fabrication of these sensors and their associated circuitry is the use of metallic/organic conductive inks. However, very less is known about the interfacial and molecular interactions of these inks with biological matter as they can result in an inflammatory reaction to the user. Significant efforts are thus needed to explore and improve the bio-acceptability of such conductive ink-based wearable sensors. The present study investigates the biocompatibility of encapsulated and non-encapsulated wearable electrochemical sensors used for sensing uric acid as a biomarker for wound healing fabricated using screen-printing technique. Ionic release of metallic ions was investigated first to understand the susceptibility of the conductive inks towards ionic leaching when in contact with a fluid. Time-lapse investigation using ICPS (inductive couple plasma spectroscopy) shows a high concentration (607.31 ppb) of leached silver (Ag+) ions from the non-encapsulated sensors. The cell viability data suggests a 2.5-fold improvement in the sensor biocompatibility for an encapsulated sensor. While the carbon ink shows negligible effect on cell viability, the silver ink elicits significant decrease (< 50%) in cell viability at concentrations higher than 2 mg ml-1. The toxicity pathway of these sensors was further determined to be through the generation of reactive oxygen species resulting in over 20% apoptotic cell death. Our results show that the lower biocompatibility of the non-encapsulated sensor attributes to the higher leaching of Ag+ ions from the printed inks which elicits several different inflammatory pathways. This work highlights the importance biocompatibility evaluation of the material used in sensor fabrication to develop safe and sustainable sensors for long-term applications.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) Assisted Biomedical Systems for Intelligent Healthcare

“…However, a detailed understanding of BBB permeation is essential but still a challenging task to achieve. Understanding nano–bio interactions with device biocompatible interfaces is crucial in healthcare applications, especially for developing implantable [ 79 ] or wearable sensors [ 80 ].…”

Systemic allergic contact dermatitis to palladium, platinum, and titanium: mechanisms, clinical manifestations, prevalence, and therapeutic approaches

“…[28][29][30][31][32] Metal ions act as haptens, which are not immunogenic per se, and bind to cellular and extracellular protein structures called carriers. [33][34][35] The carrier hapten complex then binds with DC receptors to be presented to T lymphocytes. Likewise, haptens also induce keratinocytes to express intercellular adhesion molecule-…”

“…Another type is ACD (20% of CD cases), which is a T‐cell‐mediated immune response that follows contact with allergens such as nickel (Ni) (the most common agent), poison ivy, and heavy metals 28–32 . Metal ions act as haptens, which are not immunogenic per se, and bind to cellular and extracellular protein structures called carriers 33–35 . The carrier hapten complex then binds with DC receptors to be presented to T lymphocytes.…”

“… 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 Metal ions act as haptens, which are not immunogenic per se, and bind to cellular and extracellular protein structures called carriers. 33 , 34 , 35 The carrier hapten complex then binds with DC receptors to be presented to T lymphocytes. Likewise, haptens also induce keratinocytes to express intercellular adhesion molecule‐1 and proinflammatory cytokines (i.e., interleukin [IL]‐1α, IL‐1β, tumor necrosis factor‐alpha [TNF‐α], IL‐6) and chemokines (e.g., IP‐10, MCP‐1, RANTES, CCL18).…”

Immuno-chromatic probe based lateral flow assay for point-of-care detection of Japanese encephalitis virus NS1 protein biomarker in clinical samples using a smartphone-based approach

“…Hence, the designed optical immunosensor may be developed into a novel kit for mass screening of JEV for on-site PoC detection, especially in rural areas and clinics and can further also be integrated with artificial intelligence and internet of things to create prototypes of 5 th generation sustainable intelligent sensing systems, including wearable sensors. [45][46][47][48] 2. Experimental…”