Biocatalytic gateway to convert glycerol into 3-hydroxypropionic acid in waste-based biorefineries: Fundamentals, limitations, and potential research strategies

Production of 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid from Renewable Substrates by Metabolically Engineered Microorganisms: A Review

“…[ 2 ], which are widely used in the production of adhesives, plastic packaging, fibers, and cleaning agents. In particular, acrylic acid occupies the highest market, with a value of USD 12 billion in 2020, which is projected to be around USD 19.2 billion by 2030 [ 3 , 4 ]. Due to the significant commercial application potential of 3-HP, the market value and size are estimated to be more than USD 10 billion/year and 3.6 million tons/year, respectively [ 3 ].Currently, 3-HP production is mainly based on chemical synthesis from fossil feedstocks, but chemical production is costly and environmentally unsafe.…”

“…In particular, acrylic acid occupies the highest market, with a value of USD 12 billion in 2020, which is projected to be around USD 19.2 billion by 2030 [ 3 , 4 ]. Due to the significant commercial application potential of 3-HP, the market value and size are estimated to be more than USD 10 billion/year and 3.6 million tons/year, respectively [ 3 ].Currently, 3-HP production is mainly based on chemical synthesis from fossil feedstocks, but chemical production is costly and environmentally unsafe. 3-HP was listed as one of the most promising bulk chemicals that can be obtained from renewable materials by the U.S. Department of Energy [ 5 , 6 ], which can be achieved using engineered microorganisms.…”

Engineering Bacillus subtilis for production of 3-hydroxypropanoic acid

“…In E. coli , the highest titer reported is 76.2 g/L ( Kim et al, 2020 ). However, its pathogenic nature is a deterrent for its use as a cell factory ( Zhao and Tian 2021 ; Zabed et al, 2022 ). Other hosts, such as Lactobacillus reuteri , Pseudomonas denitrificans , Corynebacterium glutamicum and B. subtilis have also been applied for 3-HP production generally with lower resulting titers ( Zhou et al, 2013 ; Ramakrishnan et al, 2015 ; Chen et al, 2017 ; Kalantari et al, 2017 ).…”

“…Considering that 3-HP can find application in diverse fields including food and pharma sector, these hosts can potentially be problematic. Firstly, due to the production of endotoxin that is observed for most Gram-negative bacteria, and secondly, due to the pathogenic origin of the strains ( Li and Tian 2015 ; Zabed et al, 2022 ). Consequently, it should be desirably to explore and/or engineer new hosts for 3-HP production.…”

“…This titer is not high enough for commercial exploitation and a combination of strain and process engineering would be needed to substantially improve titers. Several challenges can be targeted such as preventing buildup of the toxic intermediate 3-hydroxypropanal (3-HPA) as well as byproducts, NAD + co-factor requirement of the aldehyde dehydrogenase, and tolerance to substrate and product ( Liang et al, 2022 ; Zabed et al, 2022 ). Optimization of the production conditions is key to attain the full potential of production strains.…”