Biological, environmental and socioeconomic threats to citrus lime production

Abstract

Limes as a fruit crop are of great economic importance, key to Asian and South American cuisines and cultivated in nearly all tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Demand for limes is increasing, driven by World Health Organization recommendations. Pests and pathogens have significantly reduced global productivity, while changes in agronomic techniques aim to alleviate this stress. We present here a holistic examination of the major biotic (pests and pathogens) and abiotic (environment and socioeconomic) factors that presently limit global production of lime. The major producers of limes are India, China and Mexico, while loss of lime production in the United States from 2006 has led many countries in the Western Hemisphere (Mexico, Costa Rica and Brazil) to export primarily to the USA. The most widespread invertebrate pests of lime are Toxoptera citricida and Scirtothrips citri. Another insect, Diaphorina citri, vectors both Huanglongbing (HLB) and Witches Broom of Lime, which are particularly destructive diseases. Developing agronomic techniques focus on production of resistant and pathogen-free planting materials and control of insect vectors. HLB infects citrus in nearly all growing regions, and has been particularly devastating in Asian citrus. Meanwhile, Citrus tristeza virus has infected over 100 million citrus trees, mainly in the Americas and Mediterranean. Currently, Witches Broom Disease of Lime is localised to the Middle East, but recently it has been detected in South America. The range of its vectors (D. citri and Hishimonus phycitis) further raises concerns about the potential spread of this disease. Abiotic threats to lime production are also a significant concern; key areas of lime production such as Mexico, India and the Middle East suffer from increasing water stress and high soil salinity, which combined with invasive pests and pathogens, may eliminate lime production in these areas. To ensure future security in lime production, policy makers, researchers and growers will need to examine the potential of more resistant lime cultivars and establish novel areas of cultivation.

Effects of Seedling Age on Colonization Patterns of Citrus limon Plants by Endophytic Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae and Their Influence on Seedlings Growth

“…and B. bassiana in date palm by Gómez-Vidal et al [36], B. bassiana in coffee by Posada et al [37], Clonostachys rosea in oak tree by Kwaśna et al [38], and B. bassiana in horse-chestnut trees by Barta [39], studies on artificial inoculation of entomopathogenic fungi in tree crops are still scanty. Citrus limon and the rest of other citrus species are fruit crops of huge economic importance around the world in lieu of their popularity, availability, nutritional value, contribution to foreign exchange, and industrialization [40]. The prospect of entomopathogenic fungi becoming endophytic in citrus plants would assist future studies to design pest management programs that could mitigate attacks caused to citrus seedlings and trees by the various citrus plant pests; such as the Asian citrus psyllid (D. citri) and its transmitted disease pathogen-Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus; the causal organism of citrus greening disease, which constitute a serious threat to citrus production across the globe [40].…”

Asymptomatic Phytoplasma Reveal a Novel and Troublesome Infection

“…Lime is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions from 40°N to 40°S [5,6]. Countries in the Middle East, as well as India, Pakistan, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico grow lime as a key part of their agricultural economies [7,8].…”

Evolución de la especialización y competitividad de la producción de limón en México

“…Los cítricos son el principal y más popular cultivo frutícola del mundo (Donkersley et al, 2018;Sharma et al, 2018), se cultivan en la mayoría de las regiones tropicales y subtropicales (Agustí et al, 2014). Su producción aumenta cada año debido al incremento de la demanda de los consumidores (Sharma et al, 2017).…”

“…Los principales importadores son Estados Unidos de América ($477 M), Alemania ($310 M), los Países Bajos ($246 M), Francia ($239 M) y el Reino Unido ($181 M) (Observatory of Economic Complexity, 2018). En México, el limón es uno de los productos agrícolas más exportados (SIAP, 2017), siendo Estados Unidos de América el principal mercado (Donkersley et al, 2018).…”