Biomarker of Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is caused by abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra, which subsequently causes motor symptoms. Neuroinflammation plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration in PD. This neuroinflammatory neurodegeneration involves the activation of microglia, upregulation of proinflammatory factors, and gut microbiota. In this review, we summarized the recent findings on detection of PD by using inflammatory biomarkers, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α; regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted (RANTES) and high-sensitivity c-reactive protein (hsCRP); and radiotracers such as [11C]PK11195 and [18F]-FEPPA, as well as by monitoring disease progression and the treatment response. Many PD-causing mutations in SNCA, LRRK2, PRKN, PINK1, and DJ-1 are also associated with neuroinflammation. Several anti-inflammatory medications, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), inhibitors of TNF-α and NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), agonists of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), and steroids, have demonstrated neuroprotective effects in in vivo or in vitro PD models. Clinical trials applying objective biomarkers are required to investigate the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory medications for PD.

QEEG indices are associated with inflammatory and metabolic risk factors in Parkinson's disease dementia: An observational study

“…While Hs-CRP level is a generic measure of inflammation, several studies have shown that they are useful for screening and monitoring response to treatment in various neurological diseases such as stroke, dementia, and others. 5 , 21 , 23 As such, we think that our findings highlighting the utility of common blood biomarkers in PD will be clinically useful. Ideally, we could have analyzed additional more neuro specific markers (such as neurofilament light chain) to see if these also yield similar results.…”

“…While Hs-CRP level is a generic measure of inflammation, several studies have shown that they are useful for screening and monitoring response to treatment in various neurological diseases such as stroke, dementia, and others. 5,21,23 As such, we think that our Figure 3. Absolute spectral power of frequency bands on regional distribution showed with topographic map and peak frequency of occipital derivation showed with cures in different groups.…”

“… 5 Evidence showed that patients with PD showed alterations in peripheral plasma markers of immune function, including leukocyte differential counts and Hs-CRP or CRP. 4 , 6 , 22 , 23 A meta-analysis showed that patients with PD had higher peripheral blood concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor, IL-2, IL-10, and CRP, demonstrating the inflammatory response related to PD progression. 6 CRP is not only a good biomarker of chronic inflammation, but also a measure of the pathological process in PD.…”

“…The ASP of the following common frequency bands was calculated: delta band (1−4 Hz), theta band (4−8 Hz), alpha band (8−13 Hz) and beta band (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30). Then, the ratio of the slow-to-fast frequency, that is, [(delta + theta)/(alpha + beta)], was calculated, which was also called the spectral power ratio (SPR).…”

The Mechanism of TNF-α-Mediated Accumulation of Phosphorylated Tau Protein and Its Modulation by Propofol in Primary Mouse Hippocampal Neurons: Role of Mitophagy, NLRP3, and p62/Keap1/Nrf2 Pathway

“…While the causes associated with neuronal impairment remain poorly understood, increasing evidence proved systemic inflammatory response especially neuroinflammation is crucial in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases [1,2]. The core of neuroinflammation is likely the same in aging, metabolic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, or cerebral insults such as stroke and injury [3], and inflammatory mediator tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was proved to serve as a key player and biomarker of neuroinflammation [4]. Speaking of molecular mechanisms, plenty of evidence suggested that the aggregation of β-amyloid, αsynuclein, and Tau protein plays a crucial role in neurodegenerative cascades [5][6][7].…”