Biomarkers for risk-based treatment modifications for CNS germ cell tumors: Updates on biological underpinnings, clinical trials, and future directions

Abstract

CNS germ cell tumors (GCTs) preferentially occur in pediatric and adolescent patients. GCTs are located predominantly in the neurohypophysis and the pineal gland. Histopathologically, GCTs are broadly classified into germinomas and non-germinomatous GCTs (NGGCTs). In general, germinoma responds well to chemotherapy and radiation therapy, with a 10-year overall survival (OS) rate of approximately 90%. In contrast, NGGCTs have a less favorable prognosis, with a five-year OS of approximately 70%. Germinomas are typically treated with platinum-based chemotherapy and whole-ventricular radiation therapy, while mature teratomas can be surgically cured. Other NGGCTs require intensive chemotherapy with radiation therapy, including whole brain or craniospinal irradiation, depending on the dissemination status and protocols. Long-term treatment-related sequelae, including secondary neoplasms and cerebrovascular events, have been well recognized. These late effects have a tremendous impact in later life, especially since patients are mostly affected in childhood or young adults. Intending to minimize the treatment burden on patients, the identification of biomarkers for treatment stratification and evaluation of treatment response is of critical importance. Recently, tumor cell content in germinomas has been shown to be closely related to prognosis, suggesting that cases with low tumor cell content may be safely treated with a less intensive regimen. Among the copy number alterations, the 12p gain is the most prominent and has been shown to be a negative prognostic factor in NGGCTs. MicroRNA clusters (mir-371-373) were also revealed to be a hallmark of GCTs, demonstrating the potential for the application of liquid biopsy in the diagnosis and detection of recurrence. Recurrent mutations have been detected in the MAPK or PI3K pathways, most typically in KIT and MTOR and low genome-wide methylation has been demonstrated in germinoma; this most likely reflects the cell-of-origin primordial germ cells for this tumor type. These alterations can also be leveraged for liquid biopsies of cell-free DNA and may potentially be targeted for treatment in the future. Advancements in basic research will be translated into clinical practice and can directly impact patient management. Additional understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of GCTs will lead to the development of better-stratified clinical trials, ultimately resulting in improved treatment outcomes and a reduction in long-term treatment-related adverse effects.

Pediatric Neuro-oncology

“…Therefore, when tumor markers are inconclusive, a biopsy is recommended for diagnostic confirmation. The prognosis for patients with germ cell tumors is dependent on the subtype, with a more favorable prognosis for germinomas with a 10-year overall survival of 90% 60,61 . For patients with nongerminomatous germ cell tumors, the reported 5-year overall survival is 75% to 82% 62 …”

“…The prognosis for patients with germ cell tumors is dependent on the subtype, with a more favorable prognosis for germinomas with a 10-year overall survival of 90%. 60,61 For patients with nongerminomatous germ cell tumors, the reported 5-year overall survival is 75% to 82%. 62 Treatment for localized germinomas includes chemotherapy and RT involving the whole ventricles to prevent metastases.…”

Histopathological, Demographic, and Clinical Signatures of Medulla Oblongata Germ Cell Tumors: A Case Report With the Review of Literature

“…Little is known about the clinical and histopathological presentations for GCTs at atypical sites, much less for medulla oblongata GCTs, particularly in terms of clinical behaviors. While chemotherapy (CMT) regimens and radiation fields have been historically investigated for GCTs at typical sites in multiple clinical trials worldwide [10,[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24], the most appropriate treatment strategies, such as optimal radiation field based on relapse patterns, remain poorly characterized [25]. Germinomas at atypical sites outside of these midline structures have been known to show worse prognoses than those at typical sites [8].…”

A Unique Case of Intracranial Bifocal Germinoma

“…FIGURE 5: Flow chart showing the treatment plan.Based on the guidelines from Takami et al[4]. CR: complete resolution; CCR: clinical complete response; WVI: whole ventricular irradiation; PD: progressive disease; PR: partial resolution; SD: stable disease.…”