Understanding the binding details of a small-molecule drug to a protein in its partially unfolded state is important for drug delivery as it provides insight into the overall drug-binding ability of the protein, even when the majority of binding pockets in its unfolded state are impaired. The interaction of partially unfolded proteins with drugs remains poorly understood due to a lack of structural information on proteins in their partially unfolded states. Here, we studied the interaction between serum albumin (bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model system), an abundant protein in blood serum that is an effective carrier for numerous known drugs, and a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) naproxen (NPS) using various spectroscopic and computational methods. Molecular dynamics simulations starting from the drug-unbound state and performed at physiological and higher temperatures revealed novel hydrophobic sites on the BSA surface. We analyzed the BSA− NPS interaction in the presence and absence of the cationic organized assembly CTAB and two oligosaccharides (β-CD and 2-HPβ-CD) at different excitation wavelengths. The solvation dynamics of BSA under NPS-bound conditions became ∼4.6% faster. Oligosaccharides were found to increase the solubility of NPS by providing a hydrophobic environment for the formation of inclusion complexes through host−guest interactions. These findings provide a comprehensive overview and uncover the binding model and mechanism of interaction of NPS with BSA, revealing hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds required for BSA to bind NPS at these noncanonical sites. The molecular-level understanding of the binding mechanism of commonly used NSAIDs like NPS with partially unfolded BSA will be useful in designing pharmaceutically important molecules with efficient loading and delivery properties.
