Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming

Abstract

The ability of the ancient Egyptians to preserve the human body through embalming has not only fascinated people since antiquity, but also has always raised the question of how this outstanding chemical and ritual process was practically achieved. Here we integrate archaeological, philological and organic residue analyses, shedding new light on the practice and economy of embalming in ancient Egypt. We analysed the organic contents of 31 ceramic vessels recovered from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara1,2. These vessels were labelled according to their content and/or use, enabling us to correlate organic substances with their Egyptian names and specific embalming practices. We identified specific mixtures of fragrant or antiseptic oils, tars and resins that were used to embalm the head and treat the wrappings using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analyses. Our study of the Saqqara workshop extends interpretations from a micro-level analysis highlighting the socio-economic status of a tomb owner3–7 to macro-level interpretations of the society. The identification of non-local organic substances enables the reconstruction of trade networks that provided ancient Egyptian embalmers with the substances required for mummification. This extensive demand for foreign products promoted trade both within the Mediterranean8–10 (for example, Pistacia and conifer by-products) and with tropical forest regions (for example, dammar and elemi). Additionally, we show that at Saqqara, antiu and sefet—well known from ancient texts and usually translated as ‘myrrh’ or ‘incense’11–13 and ‘a sacred oil’13,14—refer to a coniferous oils-or-tars-based mixture and an unguent with plant additives, respectively.

Funerary practices in Old Kingdom Egypt revealed through a cross-disciplinary study of a mummy with painted bandages from Gebelein (Upper Egypt)

“…Interestingly we observed that a layer of soil and organic material was spread over the body of S.16731, possibly as part of the mummification process, but a more precise identification of the substances was not possible (compare Łucejko 2017; Jones et al 2018;Demarchi et al 2020;Rageot et al 2023). Unfortunately, the extent of the treatment could not be determined because, except for the knee area, it was not visible on the CT scan.…”

Advances in the characterisation and identification of mastic (Pistaciasp.) resin in archaeological samples by GC-QToF-MS

“…{ Although consensus exists that distinguishing between different species of Pistacia is not possible based on monoterpenoids or the triterpenoid fraction, 44 comparisons with reference samples of Pistacia terebinthus (not available for this study) would be interesting. The identication of monoterpenes is also extremely difficult (Table S1 †), due to the high number of possible isomers, 16,[52][53][54][55] and is beyond the scope of this investigation. Nonetheless, their abundant presence is further proof of the nearly perfect preservation of the internal part of the resin lump samples KW 39, KW 49, KW 215 and KW 605.…”

The Belgrade Nesmin: New Research on a Priest of Akhmim

“…48 A resinous coating, dark and hard, has usually been made of specific mixture of fragrant or antiseptic oils, tars and resins (e.g. Rageot et al 2023).…”