Biotransformation, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacological Activities of Ginsenoside Rd Against Multiple Diseases

Abstract

Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. has a history of more than 4000 years and is widely used in Asian countries. Modern pharmacological studies have proved that ginsenosides and their compounds have a variety of significant biological activities on specific diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, certain types of cancer, gastrointestinal disease, and metabolic diseases, in which most of the interest has focused on ginsenoside Rd. The evidentiary basis showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke, nerve injury, cancer, and other diseases involved in apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and autophagy. In this review, we summarized available reports on the molecular biological mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in neurological diseases, cancer, metabolic diseases, and other diseases. We also discussed the main biotransformation pathways of ginsenoside Rd obtained by fermentation.

Hepatoprotective efficacy and interventional mechanism of the panaxadiol saponin component in high-fat diet-induced NAFLD mice

“…48,49 Ginsenoside Rg3 is a star component of panaxadiol saponins, which can effectively improve lipid metabolism disorders and reduce acute and chronic liver injury. 50,51 In addition, ginsenoside monomers such as Rb2, 52 compound K, 53 Rd, 54 and Rc 55 were also considered to be beneficial for liver protection. In view of the effectiveness of panaxadiol saponin monomers in metabolic liver disease, combined with network pharmacology analysis, we hypothesized that PDS-C may have beneficial effects in reducing blood sugar, serum lipid levels, and exhibiting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.…”

Ginsenosides for the treatment of insulin resistance and diabetes: Therapeutic perspectives and mechanistic insights

“…Ginsenoside Rd is mainly found in P. ginseng , and, to a lesser extent, in P. quinquefoliu and P. notoginseng [ 51 , 52 ]. Its chemical structure belongs to the protopanaxadiol group, in which various ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, and Rc, are capable of being transformed into Rd following absorption and metabolism in vivo [ 53 ]. Although the pharmacological function of Rd has been studied primarily as a neuroprotective agent based on its role in the potentiation of mitochondrial function and anti-inflammatory properties, recent evidence has demonstrated that Rd administration markedly improved hyperglycemia in diabetic rats fed a high-fat and high-sugar diet and administered streptozotocin by activating the Akt signaling pathway in the liver, resulting in increased glycogen synthesis and decreased hepatic gluconeogenesis [ 54 ].…”

Advancements in research on the immune-inflammatory mechanisms mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke and the regulatory role of natural plant products

“…Although ginsenoside Rd is present in low concentrations in Panax species, it has attracted wide attention from scholars due to its strong biological activity. Studies have shown that ginsenoside Rd exhibits various pharmacological effects, such as protecting cardiovascular and renal functions, exerting anti-tumor and immunomodulatory activities, and showing good neuroprotective effects on the central nervous system ( Li et al, 2022b ; Tang et al, 2022 ). In terms of cerebral ischemia, ginsenoside Rd can improve ischemic stroke-induced damage by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation.…”