Births in wild black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in Northern Argentina

Abstract

Previous studies on births in nonhuman primates suggest that births are expected to occur at night to avoid predators. Here, we describe birth-related behaviors in wild black and gold howler monkeys, Alouatta caraya and address the various ideas proposed in the literature about the timing of births in group-living nonhuman primates. We collected data on females' birth-related behaviors through continuous focal observations and scan samples. Focal observations on females giving birth were taken for the remainder of the day after noticing a female was in labor. We recorded behaviors and the spatial distribution of the whole group using scan samples taken every 10 min from sunrise to sunset the same day of birth. We recorded five births at the continuous forest (CF) over a 25 months period (January 2004-December 2004 and September 2005-September 2006) and two births in the fragmented forest (FF) over a 13 months period (September 2005-September 2006). From these, four births were during daylight (two at CF and two at FF) and three during the night at CF. Our descriptions of A. caraya births contribute to a growing data set on the timing of parturition in wild nonhuman primates and suggest that a clear pattern of nocturnal births is not universal across nonhuman primate species.

Female sociality during the daytime birth of a wild bonobo at Luikotale, Democratic Republic of the Congo

“…Several possible advantages of nocturnal parturition for diurnal species of nonhuman primates have been proposed (Brandt and Mitchell 1971;Jolly 1972;Duboscq et al 2008;Peker et al 2009), which may explain, in part, why birth events are not observed more frequently during long-term studies of wild primates. However, the selective forces acting on parturition timing may differ between monkeys and great apes, due to differences in social systems, predation pressure and modes of travel, resulting in a weaker bias towards nocturnal labour in apes (Jolly 1972).…”

“…Despite this paucity of observations of parturition in the wild, there is an increasing and disproportionate body of evidence comprising various species of nonhuman primates which suggests that birth may occur in a social context more regularly than was previously thought (e.g. Dunbar and Dunbar 1974;Oppenheimer 1976;Stewart 1977;Goodall and Athumani 1980;Nigi 1982;Sekulic 1982;Chism et al 1983;Kinnaird 1990;Nakamichi et al 1992;Condit and Smith 1994;Gorzitze 1996;Kiwede 2000;Ruiz et al 2004;Dias 2005;Kumar et al 2005;Camargo and Ferrari 2007;Peker et al 2009;Turner et al 2010;Yao et al 2012;Ding et al 2013;Deluycker 2014).…”

Births in Captive Stump-Tailed Macaques (Macaca arctoides)

“…This behaviour has also been observed in other non-human primates before parturition, and has been used as an indication of the onset of labour [Brandt and Mitchell, 1973;Gouzoules, 1974;Ratnayeke and Dittus, 1989;Dias, 2005;Peker et al, 2009;Turner et al, 2010]. However, individual variations in different events of parturition were shown by the parturients.…”

“…Regular manual vaginal inspection followed by licking of fingers was defined as the onset of labour. This behaviour has been used as an indication of the onset of labour in other non-human primates [Brandt and Mitchell, 1973;Gouzoules, 1974;Ratnayeke and Dittus, 1989;Dias, 2005;Peker et al, 2009;Turner et al, 2010]. The occurrence of a contraction was identified by the female's positional behavior: squatting, raising hands and bipedal standing.…”

Evidence of Placentophagia and Mother-Infant Cannibalism in Free-Ranging Macaca mulatta tcheliensis in Mount Taihangshan, Jiyuan, China

“…Due to the difficulties of field observations under dark or twilight conditions, it is rare to record the detailed process of primate births in their natural environment [Peker et al, 2009;Yang et al, 2016]. Accordingly, there is limited information regarding the parturition process and the earliest interactions between a mother and her newborn infant.…”