Bisphenols as a Legacy Pollutant, and Their Effects on Organ Vulnerability

Abstract

Bisphenols are widely used in the synthesis of polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resins, and thermal paper, which are used in manufacturing items of daily use. Packaged foods and drinks are the main sources of exposure to bisphenols. These chemicals affect humans and animals by disrupting the estrogen, androgen, progesterone, thyroid, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor functions. Bisphenols exert numerous harmful effects because of their interaction with receptors, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell signal alterations. Both cohort and case-control studies have determined an association between bisphenol exposure and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, reproductive abnormalities, obesity, and diabetes. Prenatal exposure to bisphenols results in developmental disorders in animals. These chemicals also affect the immune cells and play a significant role in initiating the inflammatory response. Exposure to bisphenols exhibit age, gender, and dose-dependent effects. Even at low concentrations, bisphenols exert toxicity, and hence deserve a critical assessment of their uses. Since bisphenols have a global influence on human health, the need to discover the underlying pathways involved in all disease conditions is essential. Furthermore, it is important to promote the use of alternatives for bisphenols, thereby restricting their uses.

Endocrine‐disrupting chemicals and obesity risk: A review of recommendations for obesity prevention policies

“…32 Develop medical interventions to reduce EDC toxicity or eliminate EDCs from the body. 33 Increased understanding that the genetically based sensitivity of some people in the population to even small amounts of exposure means that they may require increased medical surveillance to anticipate and detect preclinical disease and intervene before more serious, chronic conditions [ensue]. 34 Prediction of long-term effect of chemical exposures using genomic classifiers will facilitate assignment of treatment and development of more effective therapy.…”

In Utero Exposure to Organic Pollutants and Lung Function in the Offspring

“…They can activate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathways that lead to DNA damage and cellular death. Bisphenols might also alter immune responses by the stimulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the inhibition of anti-inflammatory cytokines production 59 .…”

Prenatal Exposure to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Asthma and Allergic Diseases

“…TH1/TH2 cells [62]. It also binds to androgen and progesterone receptors, PPAR, and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a ligand-dependent transcription factor present in almost every tissue [63,64]. In fact, some studies have observed that BPA can stimulate cellular responses at concentrations below the levels where it is expected to bind to the classic nuclear ERs [65,66].…”

“…It also binds to the thyroid hormone receptor, inhibiting the transcriptional activity stimulated by triiodothyronine (T3) [64]. This endocrine-disrupting activity explains the immunomodulatory properties of BPA observed in animal and in vitro models [63,64,67,68], as in humans [69]. The immune effects observed in relation to BPA exposure include T H 1/T H 2 cell shifts, reduction in T regulatory (Treg) cells (which are important in controlling proinflammatory reactions), T H 17 alterations (T H 17 are involved in the pathogenesis of various autoimmune and inflammatory diseases), reduced innate immunity, increased B-cell count and activity, and increased oxidative stress and expression of immunity-related genes [63,64,70].…”