Blood Lead Level in a Paediatric Population of South-Eastern Spain and Associated Risk Factors

Abstract

Objective: To determine blood lead levels (BLL) in a healthy paediatric population and to analyse related sociodemographic, dietary and haematological factors. Methods: A cross-sectional study was made of 1427 healthy subjects aged 1–16 years from the city of Almería (south-eastern Spain). BLL, iron parameters and erythropoietin were determined, and sociodemographic and dietary data obtained. The study paramateters was analyses in BLL toxic and BLL no toxic group by multiple logistic regression. Results: The mean BLL was 1.98 ± 1.1 µg/dL (95% CI:1.91–2.04). For 5.7% of the population, mean BLL was 2–5 µg/dL, for 2.1% it was >5 µg/dL and for 0.15% it was >10 µg/dL. Multivariate analysis showed that immigrant origin (OR:11.9; p < 0.0001), low level of parental education (OR:4.6; p < 0.02) and low dietary iron bioavailability (OR: 3.2; p < 0.02) were all risk factors for toxic BLL. Subjects with toxic and non-toxic BLL presented similar iron and erythropoiesis-related parameters, except erythrocyte protoporphyrin, which was significantly higher in the BLL >5 µg/dL group. Conclusions: BLL and the prevalence of toxic BLL in healthy subjects aged 1–16 years living in south-eastern Spain are low and similar to those found in other developed countries. The factors associated with toxic BLL are immigrant origin, low level of parental education and dietary iron deficiency. The toxicity of BLL was not related to changes in the analytical parameters studied.

The Intersection of Immigrant and Environmental Health: A Scoping Review of Observational Population Exposure and Epidemiologic Studies

“…The 18 articles that examined blood metal levels consistently found higher levels in immigrants compared with nonimmigrants. 33 – 42 , 44 – 49 , 51 , 52 An early study in Los Angeles, California, measured blood lead levels (BLLs) in 1,932 pregnant women, of which 1,428 were immigrants. 33 They found that immigrants had significantly higher BLLs and that 25 of the 30 cases of elevated BLL ( ) were in immigrant women.…”

“…We identified four studies in this exposure category that were conducted outside North America. 32 , 51 , 52 , 54 A recent study in Spain found that among children 1–16 years of age, the odds ratio (OR) of immigrants having elevated BLL ( ) compared with nonimmigrants was 11.9 (95% CI: 4.5, 31.3). 51 In this analysis, immigrant status was the risk factor with the highest OR compared with others such as gender, SES, parental education level, iron bioavailability in diet, iron deficiency, and overweight status.…”

“… 32 , 51 , 52 , 54 A recent study in Spain found that among children 1–16 years of age, the odds ratio (OR) of immigrants having elevated BLL ( ) compared with nonimmigrants was 11.9 (95% CI: 4.5, 31.3). 51 In this analysis, immigrant status was the risk factor with the highest OR compared with others such as gender, SES, parental education level, iron bioavailability in diet, iron deficiency, and overweight status. In Taiwan, researchers looked at the heavy metals in baby meconium of immigrant compared with nonimmigrant mothers.…”

“…In Canada, Spain, and Taiwan, higher heavy metal exposure in immigrants compared with nonimmigrants 51 , 52 ; further disparities by region of origin in Canada 44 – 46 , 48 , 49 …”

Exposure to heavy metals and red blood cell parameters in children: A systematic review of observational studies

“…From the total, 11 studies were appraised as having good quality ( 23 , 24 , 30 , 32 , 35 , 38 , 41 , 47 , 52 – 54 ), nine as fair quality ( 26 , 27 , 31 , 33 , 42 , 45 , 46 , 51 , 55 ), and 18 as poor quality ( 19 – 22 , 25 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 48 – 50 , 56 ). Since nearly all included studies had a cross-sectional design, the most frequent methodological limitations were the lack of temporal precedence, sufficient timeframe between exposure and outcome, and exposure being assessed only once.…”