Blood parasites of penguins: a critical review

Abstract

Blood parasites are considered some of the most significant pathogens for the conservation of penguins, due to the considerable morbidity and mortality they have been shown to produce in captive and wild populations of these birds. Parasites known to occur in the blood of penguins include haemosporidian protozoans (Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus), piroplamid protozoans (Babesia), kinetoplastid protozoans (Trypanosoma), spirochete bacteria (Borrelia) and nematode microfilariae. This review provides a critical and comprehensive assessment of the current knowledge on these parasites, providing an overview of their biology, host and geographic distribution, epidemiology, pathology and implications for public health and conservation.

Comparative morphometric evaluation of hepatic hemosiderosis in wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) infected with different Plasmodium spp. subgenera

“…During their winter migration, individuals from the Atlantic Ocean colonies migrate along the continental shelf of northern Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil (STOKES et al, 2014), where they face many challenges (PETRY & FONSECA, 2002;GARCÍA-BORBOROGLU et al, 2006;BRANDÃO et al, 2011;BALDASSIN et al, 2012;REZENDE et al, 2013;KEHRIG et al, 2015). Birds stranded alive are rescued and referred to local rehabilitation centers along the Brazilian coast (GARCÍA-BORBOROGLU et al, 2010;RODRIGUES et al, 2010;RUOPPOLO et al, 2012) While under rehabilitation, these birds may be exposed to avian malaria, one of the most significant threats to the conservation of penguins, able to seriously compromise their survival in captivity (JONES & SHELLAM, 1999;VANSTREELS et al, 2016). Avian malaria is transmitted by Culicidae mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium spp.…”

“…Avian malaria is transmitted by Culicidae mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium spp. protozoans (VALKIŪNAS, 2005), and is relatively asymptomatic in most avian species, but potentially pathogenic for those species that have not co-evolved with the parasite, such as penguins (Spheniscidae) (VALKIŪNAS, 2005;VANSTREELS et al, 2016). Penguins are highly susceptible to avian malaria.…”

Do blood parasites infect Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) in the wild? Prospective investigation and climatogeographic considerations

“…Blood parasites are relevant pathogens to penguins, with a potential to cause substantial morbidity and mortality (Vanstreels et al 2016a). Because of their obligatory heteroxenous life cycle, the spatiotemporal distribution of protozoan blood parasites is inherently related to that of their invertebrate vectors and, as a result, is strongly influenced by climatic factors (Rogers and Randolph, 2000;Harvell et al 2002;Garamszegi, 2011).…”

Resultados preliminares de valores gematológicos en una población silvestre de Spheniscus humboldti en el sur de Perú

“…La sangre se transfirió rápidamente a tubos Vacutainer® de heparina litio y las muestras fueron conservadas a 4 °C. Se realizaron frotis sanguíneos con una gota de sangre fresca y fueron secados al aire, teñidos con Wright y observados al microscopio para la detección directa de hemoparásitos acorde a su morfología (Vanstreels et al, 2016). El hematocrito se determinó con el método del microhematocrito utilizando una microcentrífuga Fisher Scientific.…”