“…Surface chemical components, wettabilities, roughnesses, and surface/cross-sectional morphologies of both NF and PNF membranes were determined by an XPS (ESCALAB 250Xi, USA), ATR-FTIR (NEXUS, USA), contact angle analyzer (Theta, Finland), AFM (Multimode 8, USA), and FE-SEM (JSM-6390LV, Japan), respectively. The distribution of proteins on the fouled/rinsed membrane skin layers with the assistance of fluorescence dye was visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) following the methods developed by Du et al 31 In terms of their precursors, the chemical structure, elemental compositions, surface morphologies, and wettabilities of these photocatalysts were also determined by the aforementioned ATR-FTIR, XPS, FE-SEM, and contact angle analyzer, respectively. In addition, the crystal structure was determined by an XRD (X' Pert3 Powder, Netherlands).…”