Breakfast Characteristics and Their Association with Energy, Macronutrients, and Food Intake in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Breakfast plays an important role in health because it has been associated with overall health, which includes a high daily nutrient intake and a low risk of chronic diseases. For this reason, we investigated the associations between breakfast consumption and daily energy, macronutrients, and food and beverage consumption. We systematically searched peer-reviewed articles in three datasets (Pubmed, Scopus, and Cochrane). Two independent reviewers evaluated 3188 studies against the inclusion criteria using the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS) critical appraisal and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) methodologies. The meta-analysis was performed by comparing results based on type of breakfast consumed (ready to eat cereal breakfasts or other types of breakfasts). Ultimately, 38 studies were included in the review and 7 of them in the energy and macronutrients intake meta-analysis. In the Systematic Review, breakfast consumers had higher energy intake (EI), fibre intake, and higher consumption of fruits and vegetables and lower consumption of soft drinks than breakfast skippers. In the Meta-Analysis, breakfast consumers had a higher carbohydrates intake (MD, −8.21; 95%CI: −11.37, −5.05) and fibre intake (MD, −8.43; 95%CI: −12.63, −4.23) than breakfast skippers. However, breakfast consumers had a lower fat intake (MD, 4.59; 95%CI: 2.04, 7.15). Our review suggests that breakfast consumption is associated with better macronutrient intake and healthier food and beverage consumption.

Comparative Analysis of the Effects of Daily Eating Habits and Physical Activity on Anthropometric Parameters in Elementary School Children in Latvia: Pach Study

“…To evaluate pupils’ EH among study groups and by sex, a questionnaire based on the content of the healthy eating guidelines of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Latvia and a project of the United States Department of Agriculture “My Plate” was designed. It included an estimation of 7 EH commonly described in the scientific literature: eating breakfast [ 20 ], number of daily meals [ 21 ], fruit and vegetable consumption [ 22 ], choice of snacks [ 23 ] and beverages [ 4 , 24 ] and eating culture, e.g., watching TV while eating [ 25 , 26 ]. Current evidence suggests that eating while viewing the screen leads to obesity in children [ 27 ], thus an additional analysis estimating differences in BMI, WC, and other measured parameters were analyzed in pupils eating at the table and pupils eating in front of the screen.…”

“…Current evidence suggests that eating while viewing the screen leads to obesity in children [ 27 ], thus an additional analysis estimating differences in BMI, WC, and other measured parameters were analyzed in pupils eating at the table and pupils eating in front of the screen. More detailed description of the survey items, answers, and correspondingly adapted scoring system (0–6 points) for the total number of unhealthy EH [ 11 , 20 , 21 , 24 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ] is presented in Table A1 .…”

“… Type of Preferred Breakfast What do you usually have for breakfast? [ 20 , 28 ] Children were able to choose one most common type of meal from the given pictures. Porridge Sweet cereals Sandwich Milk products Eggs Fruits Eating Culture How do you usually eat?…”

Breakfast Habits of a Representative Sample of the Spanish Child and Adolescent Population (The ENALIA Study): Association with Diet Quality

“…Breakfast is part of a healthy diet and lifestyle and can have a positive impact on the health and well–being of children and adolescents [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. This meal is considered by many as one of the most important of the day [ 6 , 7 ], as it breaks the fast maintained since the last intake of the previous day and modifies metabolic processes [ 8 ]: during fasting, glycogen reserves decrease and lipolysis increases, while with breakfast the use of glucose as an energy substrate increases and lipogenesis is also promoted.…”

“…On the other hand, we must also consider that most of the research focuses on analyzing the problem of children who do not have breakfast [ 4 , 5 , 25 , 26 ], but it is also important to pay attention to the quality of breakfasts eaten [ 1 , 5 , 7 , 36 ]. In this sense, Matthys et al [ 24 ] point out that consumers of a good–quality breakfast have higher quality diets (considering food consumption and nutrient intake) than consumers of a worse quality breakfast.…”