“…During recent years, increased focus has shifted to improving the computational efficiency of particle methods through a multigrid scheme (Södersten et al, 2019), parallelization (Guo et al, 2018), and running particle methods on graphics processing units (GPUs) (Murotani et al, 2015;Chow et al, 2018). Moreover, several multi-resolution (Tang Axel SÖDERSTEN*, Takuya MATSUNAGA*, Seiichi KOSHIZUKA*, Tomoyuki HOSAKA** and Eiji ISHII* et al, 2016a;Tang et al, 2016b;Chen et al, 2016;Tanaka et al, 2018;Khayyer et al, 2019;Wang et al, 2019) schemes have been proposed, where high spatial resolution is only considered over critical regions of the flow, such as around clearances (Tanaka et al, 2018) and at impact with walls (Chen et al, 2016;Tanaka et al, 2018), rigid structures (Wang et al, 2019) and elastic beams (Khayyer et al, 2019;Khayyer et al, 2021).…”