Bulgarian Phonology

The impact of forced coffee cultivation on Java, 1805–1917

“…47 The Dutch were acutely aware that if a substantial proportion of coffee payments was kept by local notables, there would be insufficient stimulus for direct producers. 48 Leading figures in Cirebon villages initially kept a disproportionate part of coffee payments for themselves, and some became wealthy enough to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. 4^ Strenuous efforts were thus made to ensure that payments were made directly to cultivators whenever possible.…”

“…41 The Cultivation System after 1832 was undoubtedly based on coercion, but van den Bosch had a shrewd understanding of the need to guarantee a sufficiently remunerative minimum price for coffee in relation to taxation. 42 His original intention was that every kind of land rent should be deducted from coffee payments, leaving villagers with a single yearly lump sum. But this form of the Cultivation System prevailed only in rather remote and backward areas, Pacitan, Madiun, and Kediri up to 1859, and Banyuwangi up to 1873.…”