Burden of pediatric hepatitis C

Abstract

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major health burden infecting 170-210 million people worldwide. Additional 3-4 millions are newly-infected annually. Prevalence of pediatric infection varies from 0.05%-0.36% in the United States and Europe; up to 1.8%-5.8% in some developing countries. The highest prevalence occurs in Egypt, sub-Saharan Africa, Amazon basin and Mongolia. HCV has been present in some populations for several centuries, notably genotypes 1 and 2 in West Africa. Parenteral anti-schistosomal therapy practiced in the 1960s until the early 1980s had spread HCV infection throughout Egypt. Parenteral acquisition of HCV remains a major route for infection among Egyptian children. Insufficient screening of transfusions, unsterilized injection equipment and re-used needles and syringes continue to be major routes of HCV transmission in developing countries, whereas vertical transmission and adolescent high-risk behaviors (e.g., injection drug abuse) are the major routes in developed countries. The risk of vertical transmission from an infected mother to her unborn/newborn infant is approximately 5%. Early stages of HCV infection in children do not lead to marked impairment in the quality of life nor to cognitive, behavioral or emotional dysfunction; however, caregiver stress and family system strain may occur. HCV slowly progresses to serious complications as cirrhosis (1%-2%) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) especially in the presence of risk factors as hemolytic anemias, obesity, treated malignancy, and concomitant human immune deficiency and/or hepatitis B virus co-infection. HCV vaccine remains elusive to date. Understanding the immune mechanisms in patients who successfully cleared the infection is essential for vaccine development. The pediatric standard of care treatment consists of pegylated interferon-α 2a or b plus ribavirin for 24-48 wk. The new oral direct acting antivirals, approved for adults, need further evaluation in children. Sustained virologic response varies depending on the viral load, genotype, duration of infection, degree of aminotransferase elevation, adiposity and single nucleotide polymorphisms of interleukin (IL)-28B locus. The goals of treatment in individual patients are virus eradication, prevention of cirrhosis and HCC, and removing stigmatization; meanwhile the overall goal is decreasing the global burden of HCV. IL-28B polymorphisms have been also associated with spontaneous clearance of vertically acquired HCV infection. The worldwide economic burden of HCV for children, families and countries is estimated to be hundreds of millions of US dollars per year. The United States, alone, is estimated to spend 199-336 million dollars in screening, monitoring and treatment during one decade. The emotional burden of having an HCV infected child in a family is more difficult to estimate.

Hepatitis C virus infection in children and adolescents

“…Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic hepatitis C infection occur in 40%‐74% of adults during their lifetime 7. Similar manifestations, while described, are less prevalent in children with HCV infection.…”

“…The prevalence of HCV infection in children and adolescents has been reported to vary from 0.05%‐0.36% in the United States and Europe to 1.8%‐5.8% in certain developing countries 7. However, these reports likely underestimate the true prevalence since current ascertainment practices enable only a small fraction of children expected to be infected with HCV to be identified 8, 9…”

Risky exposures and national estimate of HCV seroprevalence among school children in urban Egypt

“…Horizontal transmission, either from adult to child in a household, or child-to-child at home or at school does not seem to be an important risk factor. The prevalence of pediatric infection varies from 0.05 to 0.36 % in the USA and Europe and a mount for 1.8-5.8 % in some developing countries, with the highest prevalence been found in Egypt [8,11]. Parenteral acquisition of HCV remains a major route for infection among Egyptian children.…”

“…Parenteral acquisition of HCV remains a major route for infection among Egyptian children. Insufficient screening of transfusions, unsterilized injection equipment and re-used needles and syringes continue to be major routes of HCV transmission in developing countries, whereas vertical transmission and adolescent high-risk behaviors as injection drug abuse, are the major routes in developed countries [1,8,12,15,17]. Rural children and young adults who were not exposed to the parenteral antischistosomiasis injections campaigns led in Egypt between 1970 and 1980 have relatively high anti-HCV prevalence.…”

HBV and HCV Patients; Psychiatric Comorbidity and Coping Strategies

“…2 In Pakistan the viral hepatitis illness, especially HBV & HCV are rising day by day due to poor health care services, poverty and lack of public awareness regarding prevention of disease transmission. 3 In Pakistan the prevalence of HCV in health workers, pregnant women, voluntary blood donors and the general public is 5.4%, 5.2%, 3.6% and 5% respectively.…”