Burly gaits: centers of mass, stability, and the trackways of sauropod dinosaurs

Henderson, Donald M.

doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[907:bgcoms]2.0.co;2

Cited by 103 publications

(136 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…The whole-body CM displacement is more closely associated with the stance forelimb motion, reaching its maximum around forelimb mid-stance. As the elephant's body CM is closer to the forelimbs (Thompson 1917;Henderson 2006;this study), and the forelimbs remain very straight during the stance phase (Hutchinson et al 2003(Hutchinson et al , 2006, this indicates that the forelimbs most likely still use vaulting mechanics even at faster speeds. Although the vertical CM displacement showed a similar two-peaked pattern at both slower and faster speeds, its highest position moved towards the contralateral hindlimb touchdown as speed increased.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 79%

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Ren

Hutchinson

2007

J. R. Soc. Interface.

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We examined whether elephants shift to using bouncing (i.e. running) mechanics at any speed. To do this, we measured the three-dimensional centre of mass (CM) motions and torso rotations of African and Asian elephants using a novel multisensor method. Hundreds of continuous stride cycles were recorded in the field. African and Asian elephants moved very similarly. Near the mechanically and metabolically optimal speed (a Froude number (Fr) of 0.09), an inverted pendulum mechanism predominated. With increasing speed, the locomotor dynamics quickly but continuously became less like vaulting and more like bouncing. Our mechanical energy analysis of the CM suggests that at a surprisingly slow speed (approx. 2.2 m s K1 , Fr 0.25), the hindlimbs exhibited bouncing, not vaulting, mechanics during weight support. We infer that a gait transition happens at this relatively slow speed: elephants begin using their compliant hindlimbs like pogo sticks to some extent to drive the body, bouncing over their relatively stiff, vaulting forelimbs. Hence, they are not as rigid limbed as typically characterized for graviportal animals, and use regular walking as well as at least one form of running gait.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 79%

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Ren

Hutchinson

2007

J. R. Soc. Interface.

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“…Using hypothesized pes and manus morphology [10] combined with CM and mass estimates [9], Diplodocus cannot produce manus-only trackways, but would be expected to produce pes-only trackways when Cu…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The indenters were generated and scaled to represent sauropod autopodia. Two sauropods were used; Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus because they represent distinct sauropod groups, and have been suggested as having considerably different centre of mass (CM) positions [9]. Indenter morphology was based on predicted track outlines for the two taxa by [10], fig.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Indenter morphology was based on predicted track outlines for the two taxa by [10], fig. 9.3 and scaled according to the specimens used in calculating mass by [9] (figure 1). The indenters were given material properties to make them rigid in comparison with the substrate, consistent with interpretations of the sauropod manus as a functionally rigid, block-like structure [11].…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Simulating sauropod manus-only trackway formation using finite-element analysis

et al. 2010

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The occurrence of sauropod manus-only trackways in the fossil record is poorly understood, limiting their potential for understanding locomotor mechanics and behaviour. To elucidate possible causative mechanisms for these traces, finite-element analyses were conducted to model the indentation of substrate by the feet of Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus. Loading was accomplished by applying mass, centre of mass and foot surface area predictions to a range of substrates to model track formation. Experimental results show that when pressure differs between manus and pes, as determined by the distribution of weight and size of respective autopodia, there is a range of substrate shear strengths for which only the manus (or pes) produce enough pressure to deform the substrate, generating a track. If existing reconstructions of sauropod feet and mass distributions are correct, then different taxa will produce either manus-or pes-only trackways in specific substrates. As a result of this work, it is predicted that the occurrence of manus-or pes-only trackways may show geo-temporal correlation with the occurrence of body fossils of specific taxa.

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“…Sauropods had two types of trackways, classed as either "wide-gauge" with hindfoot impressions relatively far from the midline, or "narrow-gauge" with hind prints close to or overlapping the midline of the trackways (Lockley et al 1994;wilson & Carrano 1999;Henderson 2006). Narrowgauge trackways are characteristic of Jurassic records, while wide-gauge trackways are more common in Cretaceous records, a modification that was brought about by a change in the bone structure of the hindlimbs and pelvic girdles.…”

Section: Taxonomic Affinitiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

First New Zealand record of probable dinosaur footprints from the Late Cretaceous North Cape Formation, northwest Nelson

Browne¹

2009

New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics

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Structures that are interpreted as dinosaur footprints are recorded from six localities within the Late Cretaceous (Maastrictian) aged North Cape Formation of northwest Nelson. These are the first dinosaur footprints to be recognised from New Zealand and the first occurrence of dinosaurs from the South Island, and add considerably to our knowledge of New Zealand dinosaurs, which currently is based on only three dinosaur bone fossil localities. The trace fossils occur within sandstone beds that form part of a succession of intertidal sandstones and mudstones. In cross-section, the footprints form structures with sharp vertical margins, infilled with both massive or laminated sandstone and discrete blocks of sandstone and mudstone. Sediments underlying are either planar with the base of the structures or deformed downward, and overlying sediments drape into the tops of the structures. In plan view, structures are usually roughly circular, with clear margins, and are filled with both blocky and massive sandstone, as well as sandstone with arcuate laminae or low-angle shear planes. One structure is more elongate and appears to represent the left foot impression of a dinosaur.The possibility that these structures were formed by physical or sedimentological processes is ruled out. Based on morphology, it is most likely these structures represent sauropod footprints. Sauropods were large dinosaurs with pentadactyl (5-toed) feet that, based on studies outside New Zealand, produced no clear toe impressions, but rather had a broad club-like footprint. Such a foot would have provided support for these large animals in coastal plain to intertidal settings, dominated by soft sand and mud or waterlogged swampy environments. Based on the age of the formation and knowledge of the evolution of the sauropods, it is further concluded that these structures may represent footprints of the sauropod superfamily Titanosaurida, though it is not possible to characterise them taxonomically any further.

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Burly gaits: centers of mass, stability, and the trackways of sauropod dinosaurs

Abstract: BioOne Complete (complete.BioOne.org) is a full-text database of 200 subscribed and open-access titles in the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences published by nonprofit societies, associations, museums, institutions, and presses.

Cited by 103 publications

References 33 publications

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed

Simulating sauropod manus-only trackway formation using finite-element analysis

First New Zealand record of probable dinosaur footprints from the Late Cretaceous North Cape Formation, northwest Nelson

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