Can aposematic signals evolve by gradual change?

Lindström, Leena; Alatalo, Rauno V.; Mappes, Johanna; Riipi, Marianna; Vertainen, Laura

doi:10.1038/16692

Cited by 197 publications

(160 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…My theory differs from earlier theories because it suggests that aposematism should arise relatively rapidly, rather than gradually, which is consistent with the recent experimental findings of Lindström et al (1999b). My approach emphasizes the responses of predators to novel prey types (which may well be shaped to a degree by an ability of predators to generalize from previous experience).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 47%

The coevolution of warning signals

Sherratt

2002

Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B

125

105

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It has long been recognized that defended prey tend to be conspicuous. Current theories suggest that the association ('aposematism') has arisen because predators more readily learn to avoid attacking defended phenotypes when they are conspicuous. In this paper, I consider why such psychology has evolved. In particular, I argue that aposematism may have evolved not because of an independent and pre-existing receiver bias, but because the conspicuousness of a prey item provides a reliable indicator of its likelihood of being defended. To develop my case I consider how warning signals might coevolve in a system containing a number of predators, whose foraging behaviour is also subject to selection. In these cases, models readily show that the greater the conspicuousness of a novel prey item, the more likely that it has been encountered by other predators and survived. As a consequence, naive predators should be less likely to attack highly conspicuous novel prey on encounter, or at least more inclined to attack them cautiously. This adaptive predator behaviour will greatly facilitate the spread of aposematic phenotypes from extreme rarity, which in turn will enhance selection for forms of predator behaviour under which aposematism will coevolve even more readily.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 47%

The coevolution of warning signals

Sherratt

2002

Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B

125

105

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“…Indeed, the function of conspicuousness in warning coloration has previously mainly been attributed to enhancing associative learning (Gittleman & Harvey 1980;Roper & Redston 1987;Schuler & Roper 1992;Alatalo & Mappes 1996;LindstrÎm et al 1999a; but see Figure 1. The mean bias against conspicuous crumbs eaten for all groups in experiment 1.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pyrazine odour makes visually conspicuous prey aversive

Lindström

Rowe

Guilford

2001

Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B

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Unpalatable insects frequently adopt multimodal signals to ward o¡ predators, incorporating sounds and odours into their colourful displays. Pyrazine is an odour commonly used in insect warning displays, and has previously been shown to elicit unlearned biases against common warning colours, e.g. yellow and red in naive predators. We designed two experiments to test for similar e¡ects of pyrazine on the conspicuousness of prey, perhaps the most ubiquitous aspect of aposematic coloration. In the ¢rst experiment, we o¡ered predators (Gallus gallus domesticus) a choice between conspicuous crumbs and cryptic crumbs in the presence or absence of pyrazine. In the second experiment, we manipulated the birds' experience of conspicuous prey during an initial training phase. Only in the presence of pyrazine did birds show a bias against conspicuously coloured food, and this occurred whether or not they had previously experienced food that contrasted with the background. This emergent behaviour relied upon the visual and odorous signal components being presented together. These unlearned, yet hidden, responses against conspicuousness demonstrate that there are initial bene¢ts to prey being conspicuous when the multimodal nature of warning signals is accounted for.

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“…However, some organisms are protected by defenses that make them unprofitable and advertise their unprofitability to predators with conspicuous warning signals. These organisms are termed 'aposematic' (Wallace 1878, Poulton 1890, Mappes et al 2005) and often use conspicuous colors in their warning signals (e.g., yellow, orange, red combined with black) because such colors are easier for potential predators to learn and remember (Gittleman & Harvey 1980, Roper & Redston 1987, Lindström et al 1999b). This leaves us asking whether it is reasonable to expect that visual warning signals of aposematic organisms should differ in the same way as cryptic prey over geographic space.…”

Section: Geographic Variation For Different Preymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Conspicuous warning signals are thought to be better because they are more easily learnt and remembered by potential predators trying to avoid aposematic prey (Gittleman & Harvey 1980, Roper & Redston 1987, Lindström et al 1999b). However, some predators can be unaffected by defenses (Exnerová et al 2003) or be driven by hunger to overcome defenses , Barnett et al 2007) leading aposematic organisms to balance warning signal efficacy with detectability to such predators (Bohlin et al 2008).…”

Section: Trait Trade-offs and Interactionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influences of geographic differentiation in the forewing warning signal of the wood tiger moth in Alaska

Hegna

Mappes

2014

Evol Ecol

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Geographic Variation in the WarningSignals of the Wood Tiger Moth (Parasemia plantaginis; Arctiidae)Esitetään Jyväskylän yliopiston matemaattis-luonnontieteellisen tiedekunnan suostumuksella julkisesti tarkastettavaksi yliopiston Ylistönrinteellä, salissa YAA303 marraskuun 8. päivänä 2013 kello 12.Academic dissertation to be publicly discussed, Warning signals are not expected to be diverse because they are under stabilizing selection. This dissertation aims to study historic and contemporary selection mechanisms underlying the geographic warning signal diversity in the wood tiger moth (Parasemia plantaginis). In the first study, I explored the variation in hindwing warning color frequencies across the distribution of P. plantaginis and the phylogeography of the species. Males have polymorphic hindwing color (yellow or white) across much of their distribution but turn reddish in the Caucasus and mostly white in Japan, which coincide with mitogenetic divergence. Females vary continuously in hindwing warning color between yellow and red, becoming yellow east of the Ural mountain range, but does not correspond to mitogenetic divergence. Post-glacial isolation may be one contributing factor to the genetic divergence and the hindwing warning signal differences in the Caucasus region. In the second study, I found that thermoregulation benefits of melanin can trade-off with a larger more effective warning signal, which contributes to variation in melanization within Europe. In the third study, I found that forewing patterns function as warning signals and that generalization by predators might play an important role in warning signal diversity along with frequency dependent selection. In the fourth chapter, I found three populations in Japan differing in warning signal traits with some gene flow suggesting both selection and isolation may be underlying causes. Overall, my results suggest that historical and abiotic factors contribute to the observed warning signal diversity in P. plantaginis, rather than predation alone. This adds to our understanding of how historical factors along with environmental heterogeneity in biotic and abiotic factors can promote warning signal diversity. My results highlight the need to take an integrated approach to studying geographic diversity in warning signals.

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Can aposematic signals evolve by gradual change?

Cited by 197 publications

References 15 publications

The coevolution of warning signals

The coevolution of warning signals

Pyrazine odour makes visually conspicuous prey aversive

Influences of geographic differentiation in the forewing warning signal of the wood tiger moth in Alaska

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