“…Chesbrough provided an example using Procter & Gamble, a company which belongs to the consumer sector, where a form of crowdsourcing or collective intelligence has motivated a form of open innovation that has proven to be successful, which seems to be applicable in fundamental research, even though open science does not directly result in innovation (Buecheler et al, 2010; Chesbrough, 2019, p. 54). With the development of the internet of things, smartphones and web platforms, collective intelligence expanded from basic science to applied science, including in customer electronics, the co-creation of social goods, citizen participation, investment algorithms or social innovation (Buecheler et al, 2010; McAfee & Brynjolfsson, 2017, p. 269; Peters & Heraud, 2015; Seltzer & Mahmoudi, 2013; Tjornbo, 2015).…”