Car fleet policy evaluation: The case of bonus-malus schemes in Sweden

Which policy mixes are best for decarbonising passenger cars? Simulating interactions among taxes, subsidies and regulations for the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, China, and India

“…The scenarios most often assessed by the IPCC have primarily focused on harmonised carbon pricing/taxing as a policy strategy [21]. Focusing on transport, other studies have analysed the mid-to long-term impacts of various individual policy instruments on the CO2 emissions from the PLDV sector using quantitative models [8,13,[23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Most studies have only examined the impacts of various taxes on long term CO 2 emissions.…”

Efficiency in electricity distribution in Sweden and the effects of small-scale generation, electric vehicles and dynamic tariffs

“…Electric vehicles in Sweden was subsidized up until late 2022 through the so-called bonus-malus system, and similar subsidy schemes are in place in, e.g., Norway, Germany, Austria, and France; see, for example, Habibi et al (2019). Bonus-malus schemes are designed to give a premium (bonus) to car buyers who purchase a car with low CO2 emissions and to penalize (malus) those who buy a car with high CO2 emissions.…”

“…In the Swedish case, the bonus-malus system featured credits (up to SEK 60,000, or € 5300) for cars with CO2 emission no higher than 60g/km and higher annual road tax (depending on the CO2 emissions and fueltype) for the first three years for cars exceeding 95g/km. This subsidy, in combination with increased range of electric cars and other technological developments (e.g., Habibi et al 2019) has resulted in a large increase in the number of electric vehicles, with more than half of all new cars sold in Sweden being electric (see https://mobilitysw eden.se/and https://powercircle.org/english/).…”

Representing travel cost variation in large-scale models of long-distance passenger transport

“…The distribution of new cars by fuel type and fuel consumption is calculated using a discrete choice model. An earlier version of the model has been described in Beser Hugosson et al (2016) and in Habibi et al (2019). A recent version has been described in Engström, Algers, and Hugosson (2019).…”