Carbon Anodes for Nonaqueous Alkali Metal‐Ion Batteries and Their Thermal Safety Aspects

Abstract

electrolyte, but were limited by significant safety concerns, such as thermal runaway, arising from the lithium metal anode and its tendency for dendrite formation. These dendrites develop and grow due to uneven lithium deposition caused by irregularities in the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) passivation layer, which forms via electrolyte decomposition on the highly reactive lithium anode surface. Eventually, repeated cycling can result in an internal short circuit via puncturing of the separator by dendrites for cell failure and possible thermal runaway. Extensive research was conducted to mitigate these concerns, primarily by electrolyte manipulation to improve SEI uniformity or implementation of a polymer based solid-state electrolyte. However, this issue has still not been fully overcome even to this day, resulting in the alternative strategy of replacing the lithium anode with an intercalation-based storage material.The development of these "rocking chair" batteries began in the 1980s, where charging transfers lithium from cathode to anode and discharging reverses this process, with the first practical demonstrations by Scrosati. [2] Substantial progress came with the discoveries of the standard electrode materials: LiCoO 2 cathode by Goodenough and co-workers in 1981, [3] and graphite anode by Yazami and Touzain in 1983. [4] The first cell comprising a carbon anode and LiCoO 2 cathode was tested by Yoshino in 1983, which exhibited superior safety features as compared to lithium metal anode. [5] Optimization of the electrolyte came from replacing propylene carbonate (PC), which underwent a decomposition reaction with graphite due to cointercalation and exfoliation, to ethylene carbonate (EC)/ diethyl carbonate (DEC) mixtures. A schematic of this mature LIB is shown in Figure 1a. Sony commercialized the lithiumion battery (LIB) in 1991, where the new electrochemistry demonstrated advantages of higher energy density, longer life time, and no memory effect, as compared to the conventional nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells. Further progress and improvement in electrolyte, electrode microstructure, and cell manufacturing has led to a doubling of energy density for LIBs since their inception, almost 30 years later, despite their analogous operation mechanism. [6] Additionally, from their initial application for handheld electronics, LIBs are now seeing rapid utilization in vehicle electrification, with the global LIB capacity projected to double to 278 GWh per year Since their commercialization by Sony in 1991, graphite anodes in combination with various cathodes have enabled the widespread success of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), providing over 10 billion rechargeable batteries to the global population. Next-generation nonaqueous alkali metal-ion batteries, namely sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium-ion batteries (PIBs), are projected to utilize intercalation-based carbon anodes as well, due to their favorable electrochemical properties. While traditionally graphite anodes have d...

Tellurium: A High‐Volumetric‐Capacity Potassium‐Ion Battery Electrode Material

“…Potassium‐ion batteries (KIBs) have been regarded as a promising low‐cost energy‐storage system for future large‐scale applications due to the abundant potassium resource and the low redox potential of K + /K (−2.93 V versus standard hydrogen potential). [ 1–4 ] The development of high‐capacity and stable electrode materials for KIBs is mainly challenged by the large ionic radius of K + ions, which often results in sluggish charge transport kinetics and limited storage capability of K + ions, as well as the short lifespan caused by the large volume change and irreversible structural degradation of the electrodes during cycling. [ 5,6 ] With the ever‐increasing requirement for portable and miniaturized energy‐storage devices, high volumetric capacity becomes a very critical parameter to evaluate the practical application potential of rechargeable batteries, which contributes to the efficient packing and rational design of electronics.…”

An Urgent Call to Spent LIB Recycling: Whys and Wherefores for Graphite Recovery

“…[ 46 ] In the case of more mechanical damage in the graphite structure, it can be easily milled and renewed as a hard carbon that can intercalate both Li and Na‐ions reversibly. [ 47,48 ] Undoubtedly, the hard carbon is one of the promising anodes for Na‐ion batteries and high power anode for Li‐ion capacitors; thus, the transformation of damaged graphite to hard carbon paving a route to prepare this kind of commercialized carbonaceous materials from the spent LIBs. [ 49 ] Additionally, the formation of metal composites (e.g., Si‐graphite) is commendable using the damaged graphite toward the goal of developing next‐generation anode for high energy Li‐ion power packs.…”

Advances in materials for all‐climate sodium‐ion batteries

“…Instead, low‐graphitization hard carbon is a preferred form of anode host for SIBs through Na intercalation combined with Na adsorption on the isolated graphitic layers or filling into nanovoids 6,116‐119 . Low‐graphitization carbon generally experiences a less heat generation in comparison with the graphite anode in LIBs because of the reduced reactivity related to the sp 3 carbon 120 . Figure 10A shows the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves of sodiated/lithiated hard carbon in carbonate electrolytes, where sodiated hard carbon shows slightly better thermal property than that of lithiated counterpart 121 .…”