Care Workers, Care Drain, and Care Chains: Reflections on Care, Migration, and Citizenship

Abstract

In this article, we discuss a case study that deals with the care chain phenomenon and focuses on the question of how Poland and the Ukraine as sending countries and Poland as a receiving country are affected and deal with female migrant domestic workers. We look at the ways in which these women organize care replacement for their families left behind and at those families’ care strategies. As public discourse in both countries is reacting to the feminization of migration in a form that specifically questions the social citizenship obligations of these women, we also look at the media portrayal of the situation of nonmigrating children. Finally, we explore how different aspects of citizenship matter in transnational care work migration movements.

Family obligations across European borders: negotiating migration decisions within the families of post-accession migrants in Sweden

“…(Ada,37,2 children,Poland) To achieve such an intensive parental engagement against the backdrop of the weakening state and social support, Ada had to migrate to be a "good" mother. At the same time, Ada, as well as Viorica and other mothers taking a lead as migrants, were painfully aware of the discourse "on absent mothers" and "children left behind" (Lutz and Palenga-Möllenbeck, 2012;Ducu, 2014;Raluca, 2015), which blamed them for causing suffering and frustration to their children. Recalling her own departure and absence from Poland, Ada is eager to underline this point:…”

“…As Miller (2017, p 29) observed, caring activities and responsibilities have been historically considered as women's "natural capacities", which also is reflected by the fact that even today in many societies, including countries such as Sweden, 6 women still mainly perform primary care for children. By acknowledging the gendered experiences and practices of care, researches on transnational parenting and care arrangements long had a prevailing interest on transnational mothering, especially on "absent mothers" and their children who were left behind (Ehrenreich and Hochschild, 2003;Parrenas, 2005;Lutz and Palenga-Möllenbeck, 2012;Ducu, 2014;Ducu and Telegdi-Csetri, 2016). Even though more recent debates on transnational parenting also include fathers and their increasing care responsibilities toward raising and nurturing children, the emphasis is still on their work and breadwinning role as migrants rather than on their experiences as migrant fathers.…”

A migráns házi idősgondozás gyakorlata - Ausztria mint befogadó ország példáján keresztül

“…A gondozói szolgáltatás igénybe vételével időt és szabadságot nyernek, jutalmazásként pedig a karrierjükben való előrelépés lehetőségét, nagyobb felelősséget, vagy épp több fizetést realizálhatnak. Ezzel szemben a gondozó legtöbbször családját hátrahagyva indul neki más országnak, így részéről a hagyományos családi elvárások nem tudnak maradéktalanul teljesülni (Lutz -Möllenbeck 2012). A gondozásban a nőkkel kapcsolatos konvencionális elvárások a gyermeknevelésre, a háztartás vezetésére, a családi légkör megteremtésére, valamint a család szociális kapcsolatainak fenntartására vonatkoznak, jelen esetben azonban a kenyérkereső szerep, a háztartás kiadásainak finanszírozása is társul az egyéb felelősségek mellé.…”

“…A hátrahagyott gyermekek, vagyis az ún. "euró-árvák" azok a gyermekek, akiket édesanyjuk vagy szüleik elhagytak Európáért, pontosabban az euró mint fizeté-si eszköz megszerzéséért (Lutz-Möllenbeck 2012). Ez utóbbi kifejezés pejoratív értelemben terjedt el, mely a 2000-es évek közepén Ukrajnában kapott hangot.…”

Migration of Ukrainian Nationals to Italy: Women on the Move

“…The migrant in transit, according to the Soviet rhetoric, portrays herself as a heroine and her husband as a failure, but at the same time she ideologically endorses the Berehynia model. She uses this contradictory discourse to answer accusations of being a bad mother and a rebel wife, who is subverting the Ukrainian patriarchal gender order that is supported by many actors in the Ukrainian public sphere (Lutz and Palenga-Möllenbeck 2012).…”