Caregiving Across International Borders: a Systematic Review of Literature on Transnational Carer-Employees

Abstract

In diaspora and transnational studies little is known about the experiences of transnational carer-employees (TCEs). TCEs provide unpaid/informal care across international borders to an adult family member, friend, or relative with disability and/or age-related needs, while also working in paid employment in the country of resettlement. The primary focus of this systematic review was to examine how cultural and historical elements of transnational caregiving influence the economic, social, and health/well-being of TCEs. This systematic review draws on quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed literature on TCEs’ experiences from Canada, the USA, or Australia between 1997 and 2017. In all, 16 articles that fulfilled the search inclusion criteria were selected. The articles were analyzed using content and thematic analysis. The review highlighted that transnational caregiving is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. There is a reciprocal relationship between adult children providing care to their parents and parents helping their children resettle in their new home. The findings suggest that TCEs provide practical, financial, and emotional care to their families abroad. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive systematic review of the experiences of TCEs. Increasingly complex immigration experiences of transnational families require innovative policy responses from a transnational and intersectionality lens. Immigrants need support to maintain solid transnational networks and simultaneously adapt to the country of resettlement. Employers can use the findings to support TCEs in balancing unpaid care across vast geographical distances while sustaining their economic and social well-being.

Transnational caring in times of COVID-19: The experiences of visible minority immigrant carer-employees

“…The experiences of this sample during the pandemic provide an in-depth description of the unique needs of this subpopulation and the barriers they face. Study findings can inform new and improved immigrant resettlement programs that specifically address transnational care, such as removing barriers to family reunification for parents/grandparents ( Sethi et al, 2022 ).…”

“…Caregiver-friendly workplace policies (CFWPs) could be implemented and/or adapted for TCEs, where “employers must be engaged in the conversations around the financial, emotional, and time investment required to maintain transnational communication” ( Sethi et al, 2022 , p. 454). CFWPs include flexible work options and tailored time off to accommodate geographical distances.…”

Determinants of long-distance eldercare: Evidence from Ghanaian Immigrants in the United States

“…Eldercare is viewed as any assistance rendered to meet speci c physical, emotional, and nancial needs of older people. The literature has shown that geographic distance does not negate elder caregiving (Bei, Morrison, Zarzycki & Vilchinsky, 2023; Sethi, B., Williams & Leung, 2022). An extensive body of literature suggests that eldercare is underlined by cultural norms and values that shape attitudes toward older family members, which in turn in uence eldercare patterns.…”

“…Extended family-focused societies that emphasize family care for older adult members instils lial obligation and respect for older adults beginning in early childhood. Immigrants from such societies carry these family care values with them to their new destinations and feel obligated to care for their nonmigrant elderly relatives (Sethi et al, 2022;Gallois et al, 1999;Liu et al 2000). The lial obligation "forces" that engender eldercare by Ghanaian immigrants takes many forms and may include a combination of the following: concern over social and religious rewards and sanctions for eldercare; opportunities to show respect and gain respect from members of families and society; and feelings of obligation to provide family care (Kodwo-Nyameazea & Nguyen, 2008).…”

Commonalities and Differences in the Experiences of Visible Minority Transnational Carer–Employees: A Qualitative Study

“…A systematic review by Sethi et al [ 17 ] disclosed that due to the lack of CFWPs in the workforce along with geographical separation from their families, TCEs experience negative mental health impacts such as tension, guilt, shame, anxiety, and depression. Comparatively, a study by Amin and Ingman [ 2 ] assessed the emotional impact of providing transnational caregiving to elderly parents among TCEs living in the United States.…”