Carrageenan From Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae): Metabolism, Structure, Production, and Application

Abstract

Carrageenan is a polysaccharide derived from red algae (seaweed) with enormous economic potential in a wide range of industries, including pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, printing, and textiles. Carrageenan is primarily produced through aquaculture-based seaweed farming, with Eucheuma and Kappaphycus species accounting for more than 90% of global output. There are three major types of carrageenan found in red algae: kappa (κ)-, iota (ι)-, and lambda (λ)-carrageenan. Kappaphycus alvarezii is the most common kappa-carrageenan source, and it is primarily farmed in Asian countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Malaysia. Carrageenan extracted from K. alvarezii has recently received a lot of attention due to its economic potential in a wide range of applications. This review will discuss K. alvarezii carrageenan in terms of metabolic and physicochemical structure, extraction methods and factors affecting production yield, as well as current and future applications.

The Potential Effect of Polysaccharides Extracted from Red Alga Gelidium spinosum against Intestinal Epithelial Cell Apoptosis

“…The variability of the primary structure of carrageenans determines the diversity of their macromolecular organization and determines a wide range of their biological activity [ 23 ], including anti-cancer [ 24 ], immunomodulatory, anticoagulant, antithrombotic, antiviral, and antitumor effects [ 25 ]. Due to their biocompatibility, high molecular weight, high viscosity, and gelling capacity, these polymers have gained great importance in recent decades not only in the food industry, but also in medical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological research [ 26 ], cosmetics, printing, and textiles [ 27 ]. Approximately 20% of the largest agar industrial sources come from Gelidium spp.…”

Facile Synthesis of Band Gap-Tunable Kappa-Carrageenan-Mediated C,S-Doped TiO2 Nanoparticles for Enhanced Dye Degradation

“…33,34 Carrageenan, derived from red seaweeds (Rhodophyta), consists of water-soluble polysaccharides and is a thickening ingredient in the food industry. 35 Its notable gel-forming properties, from a high water-absorption capacity, make it conducive to constructing biohydrogels. 36 Additionally, carrageenan hydrogels have served as an eco-friendly agent for reducing and stabilizing NPs under ultrasonic irradiation, with studies highlighting their effectiveness in controlling the size and shape of NPs.…”

“…Carrageenan, derived from red seaweeds ( Rhodophyta ), consists of water-soluble polysaccharides and is a thickening ingredient in the food industry . Its notable gel-forming properties, from a high water-absorption capacity, make it conducive to constructing biohydrogels .…”

GelMA/κ-carrageenan double-network hydrogels with superior mechanics and biocompatibility

“…It is composed of α(1–3)- d -galactose-4 sulfation and β(1–4)-3, 6-dehydration- d -galactose alternately. 13 Among different kinds of carrageenan (such as κ, ι, λ), κ-carrageenan (KC) is more sensitive to the formation of K + ions. Each disaccharide unit at carbon 2 of the 1,3-linked galactose unit contains a sulfate group.…”