Causal Language in Health Warning Labels and US Adults’ Perception: A Randomized Experiment

Abstract

Objectives. To examine US adults’ reactions to health warnings with strong versus weak causal language. Methods. In 2018, we randomly assigned 1360 US adults to answer an online survey about health warnings for cigarettes, sugar-sweetened beverages, or alcohol. Participants rated 4 warning statements using different causal language variants (“causes,” “contributes to,” “can contribute to,” and “may contribute to”) displayed in random arrangement. Results. Most participants (76.3%) selected the warning that used “causes” as the 1 that most discouraged them from wanting to use the product. “Causes” was also selected most often (39.0% of participants) as the warning that participants most supported implementing. By contrast, most (66.1%) chose “may contribute to” as the warning that least discouraged them from wanting to use the product. We found few demographic differences in these patterns. Conclusions. Warnings with stronger causal language are perceived to be effective and are supported by the public.

Nature and Potential Impact of Alcohol Health Warning Labels: A Scoping Review

“…In total, we identified 27 papers that fit our inclusion criteria (see Appendix A for PRISMA diagram) [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 ]. One paper reported on two studies using different methodologies to study the same variables [ 50 ], and four papers reported on different aspects of one intervention [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ].…”

“…In terms of study aims and studied independent variables, five papers (19%) compared only new or enhanced labels with no or regular labels [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 63 ]. Focusing on label content, eight papers (30%) compared text-only labels with text and image labels [ 55 , 56 , 61 , 62 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ], twelve studies (44%) compared text message characteristics (e.g., content, specificity, framing, source, use of causal language) [ 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ] and three (11%) compared image characteristics [ 57 , 66 , 75 ]. Four (15%) papers compared label formats, such as size, position, colour or branding [ 50 , 64 , 70 , 76 ].…”

“…Four (15%) papers compared label formats, such as size, position, colour or branding [ 50 , 64 , 70 , 76 ]. Additionally, nine papers (33%) studied other variables, such as alcohol content, alcohol/substance type, efficacy information, expectancy and self-affirmation [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 ].…”

Reactions to graphic and text health warnings for cigarettes, sugar-sweetened beverages, and alcohol: An online randomized experiment of US adults

“…After viewing the warnings and responding to survey items, participants completed two additional experiments (30,31) and answered demographic items. Participants received $2.20 for completing the survey.…”

Reducing Nicotine Without Misleading the Public: Descriptions of Cigarette Nicotine Level and Accuracy of Perceptions About Nicotine Content, Addictiveness, and Risk

“…25 We have previously reported additional details on the recruitment and other methods for our study. 26,27…”