“…Osteoblasts taken from human patients with fracture nonunion had anomalous expression of 281 genes, including sets of genes that regulate growth factor activity, osteogenesis, angiogenesis, cytokine activity, and the inflammatory response. 21 Similar results were seen in an animal model of delayed osseous union; at several timepoints after bone injury, the tissue from the nonunion site had reduced expression of several growth factors, including BMP-2, BMP-4, BMP-7, and TGF-b1, as well as the cytokine TNF-a. 22 These findings underscore the importance of regulated acute inflammatory signaling in priming bone regeneration.…”