Centering Transgender Individuals in Forensic Anthropology and Expanding Binary Sex Estimation in Casework and Research

Abstract

Due to disproportionate violence impacting the transgender community, forensic anthropologists may encounter the remains of trans individuals; however, it is unknown how often trans individuals are represented in casework and if practitioners have sufficient knowledge about trans bodies. After contextualizing forensically relevant demographics for the trans community, this study uses survey data of forensic anthropologists to critically explore the collective knowledge of and experience working with trans individuals; practitioners’ perceptions of sex and gender; and potential opportunities for trans-oriented research. The results indicate that 28.9% of respondents have worked with trans individuals in casework, but most forensic anthropologists were unfamiliar with forms and evidence of gender affirming procedures. Additionally, the survey indicates that forensic anthropologists struggle with the binary nature of forensic sex estimation, with 42.4% agreeing that sex is binary and 56.2% disagreeing. Similar opposition was found with reporting gender: 39.5% indicated that gender should be reported in casework and 31.0% disagreed. Moreover, current sex estimation methods are: rigidly binary; not reflective of human biological variation; and inadequate for trans individuals as they are based on assigned sex. To dismantle rigidly binary sex categorization, we propose the adoption of a biocultural and queer theoretical approach to forensic sex estimation and in sexual dimorphism research that challenges heteronormative assumptions, questions typological two-sex categorization, and combats the presumptions that gender and sex are stable, independent entities that convey universal meaning. Relatedly, the expansion of trans-oriented research, which is supported by 95.8% of respondents, will further improve methodological accuracies.

Metric forensic anthropology decisions: Reliability and biasability of sectioning‐point‐based sex estimates

“…Importantly, most practitioners already calculate sex-estimation probabilities using software programs such as FORDISC 3.0 [57], which are more statistically sound than the simple, sectioning-point approach tested in this pilot study. As such, our preliminary findings lend further support for the use of sex-estimation approaches that generate probabilities-not arbitrarily defined categories like "probable female" or "indeterminate" [58].…”

“…Ongoing research suggests that gender can, in some cases, be deduced from skeletal remains (i.e., in cases of facial feminization surgery; Ref. 59) but even in such cases, an individual's gender should be considered separately from their assigned sex [58].…”

Barriers to entry and success in forensic anthropology

“…At a time when forensic anthropology's impact on society is being interrogated (e.g., Adams and Pilloud 2021;Bethard and DiGangi 2020;Clemmons 2022;DiGangi and Bethard 2021;Go, Yukyi, and Chu 2021;Tallman and Bird 2022;Tallman, Kincer, and Plemons 2022;Tallman, Parr, and Winburn 2021;Winburn, Jennings, et al 2022), practitioners from systematically excluded groups and those with diverse lived experiences are critical for the field's ongoing relevance. However, it is clear from the barriers and testimonials presented here that numerous and often-hidden challenges exist for individuals from historically excluded groups.…”

A conversation on redefining ethical considerations in forensic anthropology

“…These and other theoretical perspectives allow us to explicitly incorporate advocacy and activism into our work. For examples of how antiracism, advocacy, and activism can be incorporated into academic research and publications in forensic anthropology, please see Beatrice et al (2021); Clemmons (2022); DiGangi and Bethard (2021); Tallman and Bird (2022); Tallman, Kincer, and Plemons (2022); Tallman, Parr, and Winburn (2021); and Winburn, Jennings, et al (2022).…”

“…For example, more senior-level anthropologists were not involved in this discussion, and all of us who participated share the perspective that forensic anthropology should expand ethical practices to address social issues-with advocacy, activism, and antiracism playing critical roles. Collectively, much of our scholarship, teaching, and professional service has sought to improve the culture, processes, and practices of forensic anthropology (e.g., Adams and Pilloud 2021;DiGangi and Moore 2013;Goldstein and Alesbury 2021;Kim 2018;Kim, Elgerud, and Tuller 2020;Michael et al 2020Michael et al , 2021Passalacqua and Pilloud 2018;Tallman and Bird 2022;Tallman, Kincer, and Plemons 2022;Tallman, Parr, and Winburn 2021;Winburn, Tallman, et al 2022).…”